THE  LIBRARY 

OF 

THE  UNIVERSITY 

OF  CALIFORNIA 

DAVIS 


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*Q<K 


CALIFORNIA  STATE  MINING  BUREAU. 

Ferry  Building,  San   Francisco. 


BULLETIN  No.  24,  San  Francisco,  May,  1902. 


THE 


SALINE  DEPOSITS 


OF  CALIFORNIA 


By 
GILBERT  E.   BAILEY,  E.M.,   Ph.D. 


LEWIS  E.  AUBURY, 

-    Mineral' j 


By  authority  of 

HENRY  /'.  GAGE,  Governor  of  California. 


SACRAMENTO: 
a.  j.  Johnston,      :      :      :      :      :     supt.   state  printing. 

1902. 


LIBRARY 

UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA 
DAVIS 


CALIFORNIA  STATE  MINING  BUREAU. 

Ferry   Building,  Sax   Francisco. 


BULLETIN  No,  24.  San  Francisco,  May,  1902. 


THE 


SALINE  DEPOSITS 


OF  CALIFORNIA 


By 
GILBERT  I-..   BAILEY,   E.M.,   Ph.D. 


LEWIS  E.  A.UBURY 

State  Mineral^ . 


authority  of 

HENRY  /'.  GAGE,  Governor  of  California. 


SACRAM E X  T  O  : 
a.  j.  johxstox,      :      :      :      :      :     supt.   state  printing. 

L902. 


LIBRARY 

UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA 

DAVIS 


CONTENTS 


Pack. 

LETTER  OF  TRANSMITTAL     -  7,  S 

FART       I.     GREAT   BASIN     -         -                  -                            -  9-32 

Scenery        -                             -  3 

Below  Sea-Leyel    -                                       -  -      '  4 

Climate        ...                      .              -  16 

Secondary  Lakes    -                                      -  16 

Play  a  Lakhs  17 

Fissure  Springs      -       -                              -  -       18 

Origin  of  the  Borates      -  20 

a:.<  h.ian  s  vxds          -                                 -        -  -       20 

Terrace  Deposits       -               -  21 

Geological  History       -                              -  -       22 

Volcanic  Disturbances    -               -  24 

Erosion     ...  24 

Chemical 25 

Order  of  the  Deposits                         -       -  -       28 

Tufa       -       -               -               ....  30 

Jointing     --  ______       go 

Fossils 32 

PART     II.     BORATES 33-9Q. 

Fluctuations  in  Value     -                -        -  33 

Historical  Notes            -  36 

Statistics     -       -              .....  39-42 

Borates,  by  Counties     -----  44-65 

List  OF  BORATE  SPRINGS      -         -                  -         -  72 

List  of  Desert  Springs        -               -       -  73-82 

Processes  of  Manufacture      -        -                -  83-86 

Borax  Minerals      -        -                                  -  86-90 


PART  III.     CARBONATES          -                 -  91-103 

Natural  Sodas  91 

Origin  of  Natural  Sodas  -                                 92 

Carbonates,  by  Counties  -        -                -        94-101 

Carbonate  Minerals        -  102-103 

PART  IV.  CHLORIDES  -  .....  105-13* 
Salt  -  -  -  ...  jo- 
Salt  Minerals  -  -  -  106 
Salt  Statistics  -  -  107-110 
Salt,  by  Counties  -  110-134 
Salt  Springs  -                         -                    134-13S 

(3) 


4  CONTENTS. 

Pagk. 

PART     V.     NITRATES    -  139-1S6 

Niter  in  Chili     -              -  -                 139-153 
Similarity  oi-  Chilian  and  Californian  Beds         145 

Niter  Statistics         -               -  -           152-153 

Niter  in  California     ...  -              154-169 

Appearance  ok  Niter  Beds      -  -    .  -         156 

Death  Valley         ....  156 

Geology  157 

The  Clay  Hills                                 -  -      [58 

Origin  of  the  Beds    -  -                 162 

Analyses  164-165,  180-182 

Quantities,  Values,  Water,  etc.  -       -          168-169 

Niter,  by  Districts  170-1S2 

Niter  Minerals          -  169 

Niter  in  Fertilizing     -  -              [83-  is; 

LIST  OF  ELEVATIONS       -  189-192 

BIBLIOGRAPHY         -  i93-'94 

APPENDIX— THE  STATE  MINING  BUREAU  195-208 

INDEX                                                                                     -  -       209 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS. 


l;\     Till.    AUTHOR. 


Pagi 

i.  Entrance  to  Death  Valley           -        -  -                -        -        11 

2.  Crossing  the  Boras  Crust,  Death  Valley  n 

3.  Crossing  a  Playa  Lake                                   -  m  IS 

4.  A  Desert  Woodpile                            -                 -  x5 

5.  Leach's  Peak  -  -        19 
b.  Saratoga  Lake-        -                          ...  -            19 

7.  Sand  Dunes,  Death  Valley           -  -        23 

8.  Niter  Hills,  Saratoga  District          -  23 

9.  Canon  of  the  Amargosa  River    -        -  27 

10.  State  Line  Pass         -                                             -  -  27 

11.  A  Niter  Hill  Canon      -                                  -  31 

12.  Gravel  Bluff,  Amargosa  River                             -  31 

13.  Bartlett  Borax  Works,  Daggett           -  -  35 

14.  Humphries' S  Borax  Works,  Daggett      -         -  35 

15.  Colemanite,  Saratoga  District    -  -  -                         43 

16.  Niter  Beds,  Saratoga  District           ...  -  -            43 

17.  Amargosa  River,  Jura-Trias  Formation  -  -  47 
tS.  Bottom  of  Death  Valley  -  47 
19,  20.      Boric  Acid  Vats,  Daggett       -      .    -  -                   53 

21.  Brush  Racks  for  Crystallizing  Boric  Acid      -  -  57 

22.  Boiling  Tanks  for  Boric  Acid      ...  -  57 

23.  24.      Borax  Works.  Daggett       -  61 

25.  Salt  and  Borax  Flats,  Death  Valley  -  67 

26.  Boric  Acid  Work-,  Daggett     -         -                  ...  67 

27.  Granite  Elephant,  Leach's  Spring     -  71 

28.  Granite  Wells,  Pilot  Peak       -        -  71 

29.  Devil's  Rocking-Chair,  Death  Valley  73 

30.  At  a  Desert  Oasis     -----  -         -  73 

31.  Saratoga  Springs,  Death  Valley  -  75 

32.  Saratoga  Lakes,  Death  Valley                           -  -  75 

33.  Waterfall,  Amargosa  River          -         -  77 

34.  Desert  Cactus            ...                   -----  77 

35.  The  Dead  Burro  79 

36.  Mining  Bureau  Expedition      -  79 

37.  Gypsum  Vein,  Amargosa  River  -  -        -        8] 

38.  Eocene  Bluffs,  Willow  Creek  s> 

39.  ( )\\  en-  Lake,  Inyo  County            -                  -  93 

40.  Soda  Works,  Owens  Lake                 -  93 

41.  Saline  Valley,  Inyo  County                   -  -  97 

42.  Searles  Borax  Works        -----  -  97 

43.  Salton  Sea,  Riverside  County     -  -  -       104 

15) 


Salt  Works,  Redondo      -         -         -         -         -         -         -         -  in 

SaltWorks,  Alameda  County     -         -         -        -        -         -         -      iil 

Windmills,  Salt  Works,  Alameda  County      -         -        -        -  113 

Salt  Piles,  Alameda  County         -         -         -         -         -         -         -115 

Union  Pacific  Salt  Works        --■----_  115 

Crystallizing  Vats  117 

Gathering  Salt  - 117 

A  Desert  Salt  Bed  -  -        -  -         -      119 

Indio,  Riverside  County 119 

Car  for  Loading  Salt  in  the  Field       -        -  ...      T2i 

Salt  Works,  Redondo      ...  ....  I2i 

Salt  Plow,  Salton  -  -         -  -         -         -       123 

Loading  Cars,  Salton       --------  123 

Mill  and  Salt  Piles,  Salton  -        -  -  -      125 

The  Flooding  of  Salton  Sea    -         -  -         -  125 

New  Liverpool  Salt  Works,  Salton     -  -         -         -       127 

Rock  Salt  Outcrop,  Death  Valley  -         -         -         -         -  127 

Desert  Wagons     ------  ---129 

Vein  of  Rock  Salt,  Death  Valley    -  ...  I29 

Salt  Vats,  Oceanside  -         -        -        -  -  131 

Salt  Marsh,  San  Diego  County        -  ...  131 

Brine  Pumps,  Oceanside      -  -  135 

Pumping  Plant,  Oceanside      -  -         -  135 

Salt  Drying-Sheds,  Salton  -------       137 

Pompey's  Pillar,  Death  Valley        -  -         -  137 

72,  73.     Niter  Beds,  Willow  Creek      -        -         -         -        -         -  141 

74>  75,  76,  77-     Niter  Beds,  Canon  District    -  -         -  149,  155 

78,  79.     Niter  Beds,  Saratoga  District         -         -  ...      159 

80.  Morrison's  Ranch    -----  -         -  163 

81.  Niter  Beds,  Lower  Canon  District  -  -  ...  163 
S2,  83,  84,  85,  86,  87.  Niter  Beds,  Saratoga  District  -  167,  171,  173 
88,  89.     Hard  Strata  of  Niter,  Willow  Creek      -                  -  -175 


90 

91 
92 

93 
94 
95 
96 

97 
98 


"  Desert  Lining  "     -  -                                        179 

Sliding  Down  a  Niter  Hill            -         -  -       179 

A  Prospector -                 -           192 

Pack  Outfit,  Death  Valley           -  -        -      192 

Ferry  Building,  State  Mining  Bureau     -  -                              196 

Mineral  Museum,  State  Mining  Bureau      -  -                            -      198 

Library  and  Reading-Room,  State  Mining  Bureau        -         -           199 

Laboratory,  State  Mining  Bureau       -  -                         201 

Draughting  Room,  State  Mining  Bureau  -         -                   -           203 


MAPS.     (Folders.) 

Relief  Map  of  California — Frontispiece. 

Map  of  California,  showing  Distribution  of  the  Salines. 

Township    Map    of  Southern    California,  showing    Distribution    of  the 

Salines. 
Map  of  Lake  Anbury,  showing  the  Ancient  Lakes. 
Map  of  Lake  Aubury,  showing  Present  Dry  Lakes. 


LETTER  OF  TRANSMITTAL. 


California  State  Mining  Bureau, 

May    i,    1902. 

To   Hon.   Henry  T.  Gage,   Governor  of  the  State   of  Cali- 
fornia;   The  Honorable  the  Board  of  Trustees  of  the  State 
Mining    Bureau;    and    Hon.    Lkwis    E.    Aubury,    State 
Mineralogist: 

( GENTLEMEN:  I  have  the  honor  to  submit  herewith  the  report 
of  my  reconnaissance  of  the  salines  of  California.  Most  of  my 
time  since  October,  1900,  has  been  spent  in  traveling  over  the 
deserts  of  the  southeastern  portion  of  the  State,  studying  their 
geology.  Nature  has  been  bountiful  in  giving  to  California 
salines  which  await  the  union  of  capital  and  technical  skill 
to  become  valuable  producers  of  State  and  National  wealth. 
The  main  source  of  this  wealth  of  natural  soda,  borax,  niter, 
etc.,  are  the  alkaline  lakes,  "dry  deposits,"  and  beach  lines  of 
the  Great  Basin. 

As  there  is  practically  no  literature  on  the  subject,  beyond 
articles  to  be  found  in  journals  inaccessible  to  those  most 
interested,  it  has  been  deemed  advisable  to  bring  together  in 
as  compact  a  form  as  possible  the  existing  information  as  to 
the  localities  of  the  deposits,  and  to  give  some  suggestion  as  to 
their  geological  history  and  origin.  In  order  to  publish  any- 
thing like  a  complete  description  of  the  saline  resources  of  the 
State,  the  hearty  cooperation  of  each  prospector  and  mine- 
owner  connected  with  these  resources  is  necessary.  The 
present  heavy  expense  of  exploration  in  the  desert  made  it 
impossible,  often,  for  me  to  turn  aside  or  turn  back  from  a  given 
route  to  look  at  some  recent  find,  no  matter  how  great  my 
desire. 

The  economic  importance  of  the  desert  lakes  of  the  Great 
Basin  lies  in  the  practically  unlimited  quantities  of  sodium 
salts  they  are  capable  of  yielding,  and  a  list  is  given  as  a  guide 
to  show  the  prospector  his  approximate  position  on  the  map. 

Water  is  one  of  the  most  important  factors  in  the  explora- 
tion and  development  of  the  resources  of  the  desert.  The 
location  of  springs  and  wells  is  therefore  given  as  accurately  as 
present  data  will  permit. 

(7) 


8  LETTER   OF   TRANSMITTAL. 

The  technology  of  the  salines  has  its  special  difficulties, 
since  laboratory  experiments  on  a  small  scale,  no  matter  how 
carefully  conducted,  can  rarely  reproduce  the  condition  existing 
in  large  masses  of  the  raw  material.  As  these  difficulties 
have  to  be  met  by  the  scientific  specialist,  and  not  by  the 
prospector,  it  was  not  thought  necessary  to  do  more  than  note 
a  few  points  in  connection  with  the  many  processes.  At  a 
later  date  a  bulletin  on  this  subject  would  be  of  value  to  those 
engaged  in  developing  these  resources. 

Some  of  these  deposits  are  too  weak,  too  impure,  or  of  too 
little  extent  to  have  prospective  value;  but  the  majority 
promise  good  results  to  well-directed,  practical  development. 

If  the  reports  on  certain  districts  seem  meager,  it  should  be 
remembered  that  a  majority  of  the  locations  of  niter  lands,  etc., 
was  made  in  1901,  and  that  but  little  development  work  has 
been  done  on  them.  There  is  no  question,  however,  but  that 
rapid  progress  will  be  made  in  the  development  of  these 
resources  within  the  next  two  years. 

It  would  seem  that  the  time  must  soon  come  when  these 
vast  resources  will  attract  the  serious  attention  of  capital  and 
business  enterprise.  The  path  is  open.  The  general  chemical 
lines  are  already  well  known,  and  the  engineering  problems, 
while  numerous,  are  neither  very  complex  nor  very  difficult. 
Through  the  present  steady  development  of  transportation 
facilities,  the  arid  region  will  soon  become  the  seat  of  new, 
great,  and  prosperous  industries.  That  these  deposits  will  be 
developed  is  not  doubtful  to  any  one  who  knows  the  activity 
and  enterprise  of  our  people. 

Photographs  were  taken  freely,  and  copies  and  the  negatives 
have  been  filed  with  the  State  Mining  Bureau.  It  is  hoped 
that  the  photographs  and  maps  will  do  as  much  to  show  the 
resources  of  the  "desert"  as  the  written  notes.  The  object 
kept  in  view  has  been  to  give,  as  briefly  as  possible,  the  essen- 
tial facts  in  a  way  that  will  aid  the  prospector  and  business 
man,  and  not  to  burden  the  pages  with  purely  scientific  or 
geological  discussions. 

To  the  many  persons  who  kindly  gave  every  assistance  to 

the  work,  my  hearty  thanks  are  extended. 

Respectfully  yours, 

G.  E.  BAILEY. 


THE  SALINE  DEPOSITS  OF 
CALIFORNIA. 


PART   I. 


THE  GREAT  BASIN. 


With  the  exception  of  salt  made  from  ocean  water,  the  great 
bulk  of  the  salines  of  California,  the  borax,  niter,  soda,  and 
salt,  is  found  within  the  boundaries  of  what  is  known  to  the 
geologist  as  "The  Great  Basin." 

'  To  describe  each  deposit  separately  would  require  a  volume 
several  times  the  size  of  this  bulletin;  and  there  would  be 
much  unnecessary  repetition  of  geological  and  chemical  facts. 
The  following  birdseye  view  of  the  Great  Basin  and  its  mam 
features  may  serve  as  a  guide  to  the  student  of  the  valuable, 
curious,  and  most  interesting  salines  of  the  great  desert 
regions.  However  fragmentary  the  geology  of  a  single  vein 
of  borax  or  rock  salt,  or  bed  of  soda  or  niter  may  seem,  it 
should  be  remembered  that  the  history  of  the  earth  is  a  con- 
tinuous record,  that  the  processes  of  nature  have  been  the  same 
everywhere  throughout  the  ages,  and  that  though  many  miles 
may  separate  similar  deposits,  their  history  is  the  same. 

THE  GREAT  BASIN. 

The  Great  Basin  is  characterized  by  a  dry  climate,  by 
interior  drainage,  and  by  a  peculiar  mountain  system.  Its 
later  geological  history  includes  changes  of  climate,  changes 
of  drainage,  volcanic  eruption,  and  displacements  of  the  earth's 

(9) 


10  THE   SALINE    DEPOSITS   OF   CALIFORNIA. 

crust.  The  basin  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  drainage 
basin  of  the  Columbia,  on  the  east  by  the  Colorado,  on  the 
west  by  the  basins  of  the  San  Joaquin  and  Sacramento,  and  on 
the  south  by  the  Sierra  Madre  divide.  Its  extreme  length 
from  northwest  to  southeast  is  about  880  miles,  and  the 
extreme  width  from  east  to  west  is  about  572  miles,  or  a  total 
area  of  some  210,000  square  miles.  This  vast  region  between 
the  Rockies  and  the  Sierras  stands  in  all  its  scenic  features  in 
marked  contrast  with  all  the  rest  of  the  United  States,  and  is 
only  comparable  with  the  deserts  of  Arabia  and  Africa. 

The  Caspian,  the  Aral,  and  the  Dead  Sea  in  southern  Asia, 
the  Sahara  in  northern  Africa,  and  the  Plains  of  Tarapaca  in 
Chili,  are  the  evaporating  basins  of  similar  vast,  independent, 
hydrographic  areas,  of  which  the  Great  Basin  is  the  only 
typical  example  on  this  continent. 

At  the  end  of  the  Palaeozoic  era,  the  whole  of  the  Great 
Basin  had  subsided  and  was  covered  by  an  immense  inland 
sea,  comparable  in  size  with  the  Mediterranean.  At  the  close 
of  the  Jura-Trias  period,  the  great  Sierra  Nevada  range  was 
born,  and  the  inland  sea  began  to  evaporate. 

During  the  Tertiary  period,  vast  deposits  of  clays,  marls,  and 
salines  were  made,  and  the  dry  bottom  of  the  great  sea  became 
a  desert  more  arid  than  that  of  to-day.  With  the  coming  of 
the  Glacial  epoch,  the  Sierras  were  covered  with  giant  glaciers 
that  sent  their  waters  into  the  basins  below.  Other  ranges 
around  the  Basin  did  the  same,  and  four  vast  lakes  were 
farmed  in  the  Great  Basin. 

The  history  of  two  of  these  lakes  has  been  published  in  the 
volumes  of  the  U.  S.  Geological  Survey.  Lake  Bonneville 
filled  the  depression  along  the  eastern  border  of  the  Great 
Basin,  and  its  lowest  depression  is  now  known  as  the  Great 
Salt  Lake  of  Utah.  Lake  Lahontan  filled  a  similar  depression 
along  the  northwestern  portion  of  the  Great  Basin,  and  the 
remains  of  its  position  are  marked  by  the  lakes  now  known  as 
Winnemucca,  Humboldt,  Carson,  Walker,  etc.  A  third  lake 
filled  the  southwestern  portion  of  the  Great  Basin,  and  its  lowest 
pools  are  now  known  as  Death  Valley,  Owens  Lake,  and  the 
host  of  dry  lakes  and  sinks  of  the  Mojave  Desert.  The  fourth 
lake  filled  the  area  now  known  as  the  Colorado  Desert,  and  its 
lowest  pool  is  marked  by  the  Salton  Sea. 

Neither  of  the  last  two  lakes  has  heretofore  been  described 
or  named.      It   is  suggested  and  proposed,  therefore,  that  the 


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12  THE    SALINE    DEPOSITS   OF    CALIFORNIA. 

name  of  "Lake  Aubury  "  be  used  to  designate  the  third  lake 
that  once  spread  from  Death  Valley  over  the  Mojave  Desert, 
in  honor  of  the  Honorable  Lewis  E.  Aubury,  State  Mineral- 
ogist of  California,  who  is  the  first  to  especially  examine  the 
economic  geology  of  these  desert  regions.  "Lake  Lc  Conte" 
is  proposed  as  the  name  of  the  fourth  lake,  whose  remnant  is 
now  known  as  Salton  Sea,  in  honor  of  Professor  Joseph  Le 
Conte,  whose  name  will  ever  be  closely  associated  with  all 
that  pertains  to  geology  in  California. 

The  bedrocks  of  the  desert,  and  the  lower  deposits  that 
formed  the  beds  of  Lake  Aubury  and  Lake  Le  Conte,  date  back 
to  the  Jura-Trias  and  Tertiary  oceans.  They  were  fresh-water 
lakes  that  were  contemporaneous  with  Lakes  Bonneville  and 
Lahontan,  and  the  names  given  are  useful  to  distinguish  the 
Quaternary  lakes,  as  a  whole,  from  the  remnants  now  known 
as  the  lakes  of  the  desert,  like  Death  Valley,  Sink  of  the 
Mojave,  Salton  Sea,  etc. 

These  fresh-water  lakes  were  born  from  the  snow  and  ice  of 
the  Glacial  epoch,  and  reached  their  greatest  extension  in  late 
Quaternary  times,  and  were  synchronous  in  their  fluctuations 
with  the  advance  and  retreat  of  the  glaciers.  It  may  be  of 
interest  to  note  here  that  James  Croll,  from  astronomical  data, 
places  the  end  of  the  Glacial  epoch  at  80,000  years  ago,  but 
others  claim  that  this  time  is  much  too  short.  At  any  rate, 
the  remains  of  spear  and  arrow  heads  of  obsidian,  and  the  fossil 
bones  of  mastodon,  horse,  and  camel,  mingled  together,  tell  the 
story  that  elementary  man  lived  along  the  shores  of  these 
ancient  lakes. 

The  underlying  rocks  of  Lakes  Aubury  and  Le  Conte  are 
the  slates  and  schists  of  the  Jura-Trias  period,  highly  metamor- 
phosed as  the  result  of  the  intense  volcanic  action  that  has 
scattered  lava  broadcast  over  the  desert.  Next  above  are  the 
Tertiary  clays,  bedded  on  the  upturned  edges  of  the  older  rocks, 
in  horizontal  and  undisturbed  strata;  and  next  above  them 
the  deposits  of  the  great  Quaternary  lakes. 

The  physical  history  of  these  lakes  is  recorded  in  terrace-, 
grand  embankments,  deltas,  sedimentary  deposits,  river  chan- 
nels, mineral  deposits,  and  products  of  desiccation  that  would 
take  a  corps  of  scientists  months  to  map  and  study,  and  huge 
volumes  to  describe  fully. 

The  glacier-fed  lakes  were  at  first  fresh-water  lakes;  but 
rivers  take  up  a  certain  amount  of  saline  matter  from  the  rocks 


THE    GKEAT    BASIN.  13 

and  soils,  and  such  rivers  emptying  into  lakes  having  no  outlet 
make  the  water  saline  at  last,  as  the  saline  matter  leached 
from  the  earth  accumulates  in  the  lakes  without  limit. 

Ages  of  erosion,  detritus  of  great  floods  and  cloudbursts, 
deposits  from  the  beds  of  former  seas,  ami  sand  storms,  have 
each  and  all  contributed  their  quota   in   filling  up  these  lakes. 


BASIN  RANGE  STRUCTURE. 

In  the  deserts  of  the  Great  basin,  the  three  main  features, 
mountains,  valleys,  and  springs,  have  characters  wholly  their 
own.  and  unlike  those  found  elsewhere. 

The  mountain  ranges  are  like  long  narrow  ridges,  with  a 
general  north  and  south  direction,  steep  on  one  side  where  the 
broken  edges  of  the  composing  beds  are  shown,  hut  sloping  on 
the  others;  and  were  formed  by  the  tilting  of  blocks  that  are 
separated  by  profound  faults.  It  is  as  if  an  ice  field  had 
cracked  and  one  edge  of  the  blocks  had  been  pushed  up. 

This  type  of  monoclinal  is  so  different  from  the  great  curves 
of  the  anticlinal  and  synclinal  commonly  observed  in  moun- 
tains that  it  is  now  generally  recognized  by  geologists  as  the 
"Basin  Range"  structure. 

SCENERY. 

If  nature  has  been   unkind  in  some  ways  in  the  desert,  she 
has  been  lavish  of  her  gifts  in  others.      If  the  valleys  look  for- 
bidding, yellow  with   sand   and  greasewood,  and  spotted   with 
dismal  black  lava  buttes,  yet   they  are  brightened  with  beds  of 
soda,   salt,   and   borax   that   gleam    snow-white  to  the  eye,   or 
turn   to  mirage  lakes   with   dancing  waters  and  leafy  borders. 
Every  peak,  face,  ledge,  gorge,  and  stratum   has  a  color  of  its 
own,  while  no  two  breadths  of  color  are  exactly  alike.     They 
vary  from  pure  marble  white  to  lava  black,  from  palest  green 
to    darkest    carmine,    from    delicate    cream    to    royal    purple, 
brilliancy  and  dullness  of    color  are  all    mingled,  contrasted, 
and  blended  in  magnificent  masses  that  are  beyond  description. 
Even   the  desert  plants  are  gray  or  yellow  as  the  soils  they 
grow  in.     It  is  the  land  of  the  paradox;   a  veritable  desert,  yet 
filled  with  abundance  of  riches;  a  region  of  death,  yet  for  one 
half  of  the  year  one  of  the  healthiest  places  on  the  continent; 
a   place  where  the  temperature  may  jump  from    120"  in  the 


14  THE    SALINE    DEPOSITS   OF   CALIFORNIA. 

shade  to  400  below  zero  during  the  year;  where  the  average 
rainfall  annually  is  nil,  yet  cloudbursts  rip  out  the  sides  of 
mountains  and  change  the  face  of  nature  in  an  hour;  a  place 
where  beds  of  lakes  are  found  on  the  pointed  peaks  of  the 
mountains;  where  the  rivers  preserve  their  life  only  by  con- 
cealment under  the  gravels,  coming  to  the  surface  only  when 
forced  to  by  some  rocky  barrier,  so  that  the  bottoms  of  the 
rivers  are  on  top;  and  where  one  "cuts  his  wood"  by  digging 
into  the  sand  with  pick  and  shovel.  It  is  an  arid  land,  where 
men  have  died  of  thirst  even  with  full  canteens  in  their  hands; 
it  is  a  "waterless  desert,"  yet  its  springs  are  the  favorite 
stopping-places  of  myriads  of  migrating  ducks  and  geese.  The 
ranges  and  the  plains  between  them  are  absolute  deserts,  tree- 
less and  destitute  of  water,  except  at  springs  miles  apart;  yet 
at  many  of  the  springs,  where  there  is  enough  water  to  irrigate 
the  land,  ranches  have  been  established  that  are  veritable 
oases,  delighting  the  eye  of  the  weary  traveler,  and  furnishing 
him  with  new  supplies  of  fruit,  vegetables,  and  hay. 

The  scenery  contrasts  sharply  with  that  of  the  rain-blest 
regions.  In  the  Great  Basin,  the  russet-brown  and  gray  deso- 
lation of  the  valleys,  the  naked  rocks  gorgeously  colored,  and 
the  sharp,  forbidding,  angular  outlines  of  the  mountains,  all 
form  a  picture  of  desolation  and  solitude  that  is  oppressive  to 
the  traveler.  The  scenery  is  monotonous  in  the  extreme,  yet 
it  has  a  grandeur  of  its  own. 

There  is  a  lack  of  shadow  and  an  absence  of  relief  that  make 
the  distance  deceptive.  The  glare  of  the  noonday  sun  conceals, 
rather  than  reveals,  the  grandeur  of  this  rugged  land,  which  is 
best  brought  out  in  the  rich  colors  of  sunrise  and  sunset.  As 
the  sun  sinks,  and  the  shades  grow  deeper  and  deeper,  each 
ravine  and  canon  becomes  a  fathomless  abyss  of  purple  haze, 
shrouding  the  bases  of  gorgeous  towers  and  battlements,  that 
seem  encrusted  with  a  mosaic  more  brilliant  and  intricate  than 
that  of  Venetian  artists;  and,  as  the  twilight  deepens,  the 
ranges  become  sharp  silhouettes  drawn  in  deepest  purple 
against  a  brilliant  sky. 

BELOW  SEA-LEVEL. 

The  grewsome  name  of  Death  Valley  was  given  to  the  lake- 
bed  in  Inyo  County  on  account  of  the  disaster  to  the  Bennett 
party  of  emigrants  in  early  days,  and  because  the  bottom  of 
the  old  lake  is  below  sea-level.     There  is  nothing  strange  in 


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16  THE    SALINE    DEPOSITS   OF   CALIFORNIA. 

the  fact  that  the  bottom  of  a  great  lake  should  he  below  sea- 
level;  the  bottom  of  Lake  Michigan  is  246  feet  below  ocean- 
level;  that  of  Lake  Superior  is  351  feet;  that  of  the  Caspian 
Sea  is  3600  feet;  and  that  of  the  Dead  Sea  is  2500  feet  below 
ocean-level.  The  very  lowest  point  of  Death  Valley  is  about 
15  miles  east  of  Telescope  Peak,  which  has  an  elevation  of 
10,937  feet  above  sea-level,  or  11,364  feet  above  the  lowest 
valley,  which  is  427  feet  below  sea-level.  Mount  Whitney, 
14,898  feet,  the  highest  point  in  the  United  States,  is  about 
50  miles  west  of  the  lowest  point  in  Death  Valley,  or  the 
lowest  point  on  the  continent. 

The  town  of  Salton,  on  the  Southern  Pacific  Railroad,  in 
the  Colorado  Desert,  is  265  feet  below  sea-level,  having  for  its 
high  mountain,  to  the  west,  Mount  San  Bernardino. 

5  CLIMATE. 

The  climate  of  the  Great  Basin  has  proven  "good  stuff"  for 
newspaper  yarns  and  magazine  stories,  and  its  trails  are  not 
proper  roads  to  be  traveled  by  the  incompetent  and  ill-equipped 
"tenderfoot."  Its  trails  have  been  marked  by  the  wrecks  of 
abandoned  wagons,  by  bleaching  skeletons,  and  by  rudely 
mounded  graves;  but  the  trails  are  giving  way  to  roads,  and 
the  "graves"  to  piles  of  tin  cans  around  the  springs  and  along 
the  roads,  so  that  every  desert  now  has  its  "tin  lining."  A 
decade  ago  it  was  thought  that  no  white  man  could  work  and 
live  in  the  desert,  and  that  it  was  a  place  where  only  the  noble 
red  man  could  earn  his  living  by  the  sweat  of  his  squaw. 
To-day,  there  are  ranches  in  Death  Valley  and  a  town  at 
Salton.  Mpjave  and  Barstow  are  "railroad  centers,"  and 
smelters  are  operated  at  The  Needles.  July  and  August  have 
their  drawbacks,  it  is  true,  but  the  desert  has  been  conquered 
and  rendered  habitable,  even  "below  sea-level,"  in  spite  of  the 
"  climate." 

6  SECONDARY  LAKES. 

As  Lake  Anbury  evaporated,  there  were  formed  main- 
smaller  lakes,  as  shown  in  the  accompanying  maps.  The 
deepest  portion  of  Lake  Anbury  was  in  what  is  now  known  as 
Inyo  County.  What  is  now  Owens  Lake  formerly  occupied 
the  long  valley  between  the  Sierra  Nevada  range  and  the 
Cerro    Gordo    and    Coos    mountains.     Saline    Valley    formed 


THE    GREAT    BASIN.  17 

another  lake.  The  dry  lake  in  which  Ballarat  is  located  tilled 
the  depression  between  the  Darwin  and  Telescope  ranges. 
Butte  Lake  rilled  the  basin  between  the  two  branches  of  the 
Panamint  range. 

Death  Valley  was  bounded  by  the  Panamint,  Telescope,  and 
Owl  ranges  on  the  west:  by  the  Grapevine  and  Funeral  and 
Kingston  ranges  on  the  east;  and  by  the  Avawatz  and  Shadow 
mountains  on  the  south.  Resting  Springs  and  Tecopah  Lake 
Lay  east  of  Heath  Valley.  The  drainage  of  the  ancient 
[vanpah  River  made  the  lake  that  bears  that  name.  Searles 
Lake  formerly  extended  over  Coos  and  Salt  Wells  valleys,  as 
well  as  the  present  borax  lake. 

South  of  these  lakes,  what  is  now  known  generally  as  the 
Mojave  Desert  was  covered  by  an  immense  lake,  that,  later  on, 
shrunk  by  evaporation  to  an  intricate  series  of  chained  lakes, 
but  maps  and  field  work  would  have  to  be  prolonged  for  several 
months  to  work  out  their  intricate  boundaries.  The  attempt 
made  here  is  only  to  call  attention,  in  a  general  way,  to  the 
history  of  these  lakes,  leaving  the  details  for  future  workers 
in  this  interesting  field. 

PLAYA  LAKES. 

The  places  where  soda,  salt,  and  borax  are  found  have  been 
railed  many  names,  such  as  "dry  lakes,"  "alkali  marshes,"  etc., 
and  the  term  "  marsh  "  has  been  especially  misleading,  because 
they  differ  so  greatly  from  the  Eastern  marshes. 

They  are  desiccated  lake-beds,  in  which  the  more  soluble 
salts,  derived  from  the  rocks  of  their  watersheds,  have  concen- 
trated for  ages,  and  now  form  fields  of  common  salt  that  are 
in  some  cases  many  square  miles  in  area,  and  hold  brine  in  all 
stages  of  saturation  in  the  deep  ooze  beneath  their  surfaces. 

They  are  not  necessarily  watery,  or  soft.  They  are  generally 
dry  lagoons,  with  a  surface  incrustation  of  the  salines  in  some 
form,  such  as  soda,  salt,  or  borax,  and  the  surface  is  quite 
variable  in  color.  Tin-  appearance  is  often  that  of  a  bowl  of  a 
valley,  surrounded  by  barren  monntains.  At  the  bottom  of  the 
flat  bowl  is  a  vast  deposit  that  looks  like  water,  salt,  dirty 
snow,  or  chalk,  according  to  local  circumstances.  Some  of 
these  bowls  have  a  hard,  yellowd)rown  floor  of  clay,  forming 
excellent  roads  for  heavy  teams;  but  generally,  on  trying  to 
walk  across  the  bottom,  one  finds  it  covered  with  a  sandy- 
2— Bui..  24 


18  THE    SALINE    DEPOSITS   OF   CALIFORNIA. 

looking  crust,  through  which  the  feet  may  break,  or  through 
which  the  traveler  may  suddenly  drop  out  of  sight,  for  below 
this  crust  there  may  be  solid  clay,  or  there  may  be  water  and 
slime  too  deep  to  probe.  After  local  storms,  they  may  be  real 
lakes  for  a  short  time. 

They  have  been  formed,  (1st),  by  the  isolation  of  a  portion 
of  the  ancient  lakes  in  the  elevation  of  their  bottoms  into  land, 
or,  (2d),  by  the  indefinite  concentration  of  river  or  creek  water 
in  a  bowl  or  lake  that  has  no  outlet.  In  general,  they  are 
pools  that  are  the  remains  of  Lake  Anbury  or  Lake  Le  Conte; 
Death  Valley  and  Salton  Sea  being  simply  the  largest  and 
deepest  of  such  pools.  They  are  inclosed  water-basins,  which 
have  little  depth  of  water  on  the  surface,  and  often  evaporate 
to  dryness,  leaving  mud  plains  or  "playas."  They  may  be 
miles  in  extent  after  a  storm,  but  disappear  as  soon  as  the  hot 
breath  of  summer  touches  them,  becoming  once  more  "  soda 
lakes,"   "  river  sinks,"  etc. 

These  ephemeral  lakes  exert  a  curious  effect  upon  the  scenery 
of  these  arid  lands,  with  their  smooth,  cream-colored  mud 
plains  stretching  often  to  the  horizon,  without  even  a  shrub  or 
spear  of  grass  to  break  the  monotony  of  the  glossy  surface. 
They  are  the  playground  of  mirage  and  optical  illusions;  the 
heated  air  is  filled  with  fairy  cities,  fanciful  forms  of  moun- 
tains, and  grotesque  caravans  that  divert  the  attention  of  the 
experienced  traveler  from  the  fatigues  of  the  journey  and  from 
the  profound  and  oppressive  stillness  of  these  solitudes.  They 
are  perilous,  however,  to  the  thirsty  or  lost  wanderer,  for  to 
him  they  are  the  Lakes  of  Tantalus,  whose  ever-receding 
waters  are  magical  visions  that  cause  Reason  to  topple  from 
her  throne  and  lure  him  to  a  cruel  death. 

8  FISSURE  SPRINGS. 

There  are  few  "hillside"  springs  in  the  desert,  whose  source 
is  in  the  rainfall  of  the  immediate  neighborhood.  Nearly  all 
of  the  springs  are  "fissure  springs,"  occurring  along  the  faults 
where  the  earth's  crust  is  broken,  their  water  supply  being 
derived  from  regions  remote  from  the  point  of  discharge. 
Owing  to  the  depth  to  which  these  waters  descend  during  their 
long  subterranean  passage,  and  the  heat  and  pressure  to  which 
they  are  subjected,  they  become  active  solvents  of  mineral 
matter,  and  issue  along  the  edges  of  the  monoclinals  as  warm 


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20  THE    SALINE    DEPOSITS   OF    CALIFORNIA. 

or  hot  springs,  carrying  many  salts  in  solution.  Nearly  all 
who  have  traversed  the  desert  will  remember  these  springs  at 
Saratoga,  Owl  Holes,  Bennett's  Wells,  Resting  Springs,  etc., 
and  also  what  a  delight  it  was  to  get  the  pure  waters  of  Leach, 
Kingston,  or  Paradise  springs. 

9  ORIGIN  OF  THE  BORATES. 

When  fissure  springs  rise  in  the  bottom  of  a  saline  lake,  a 
new  element  is  introduced  into  its  history.  The  fissure  springs 
rising  into  Lakes  Aubury  and  Le  Conte,  charged  from  volcanic 
vents  with  boric  acid  and  carbon  dioxide,  gave  rise  to  borax 
deposits  and  to  other  curious  and  interesting  results. 

The  original  source  of  borax  is  probably  in  all  cases  volcanic 
emanations,  the  hot  springs  of  Tuscany  illustrating  the  active 
stage  in  its  production,  while  the  Great  Basin  shows  the  work 
of  ages  past. 

Among  the  interesting  compounds  formed  by  boric  acid  in 
the  bed  of  Lake  Aubury  are  the  following:  Combined  with 
soda,  it  formed  the  borax  of  commerce;  with  soda  and  lime,  it 
formed  ulexite;  and  with  lime,  the  mineral  colemanite;  with 
magnesia,  it  formed  boracite;  while  in  the  pure  state,  it  is 
known  as  sassolite. 

Rivers  have  affected  these  deposits  but  little,  for  the  few 
meager  streams  that  are  called  rivers,  by  courtesy,  the  arteries 
of  this  parched  and  heated  country,  make  but  one  feeble  pulsa- 
tion a  year,  and  are  clearly  degenerates,  for  they  are  larger  at 
the  head  than  at  the  mouth. 

1 0  AEOLIAN  SANDS. 

The  traveler  is  apt  to  make  his  first  acquaintance  with  these 
when  they  are  in  motion,  filling  the  air  with  dust,  sand,  and 
gravel,  which  are  blinding,  choking,  and  irritating  beyond  all 
description,  on  account  of  the  alkaline  material  with  which 
they  are  saturated.  Sand  spouts,  or  "sand  augers,"  as  the 
desert  men  call  them,  may  often  be  seen  as  slender,  writhing, 
twisting  columns  of  sand,  a  mile  high,  that  sag  and  sway  and 
twist  here  and  there  with  sinuous  grace,  only  to  disappear, 
ghost-like,  as  mysteriously  as  they  appeared.  When  at  a  dis- 
tance, he  can  admire  the  slender,  hollow  dust-columns,  that 
sway  here  and  there  like  pillars  of  smoke,  according  to  the 
caprice  of  .Loins. 


THE    GREAT    BASIN.  -1 

Dust  storms  that   last  three  days  are  not  uncommon,  and  in 

the  distance  look  like  the  clouds  of  smoke  that  hang  over 
Pittsburg,  or  a  fog  drifting  in  on  San  Francisco. 

On  calm  days  he  can  enjoy  the  huge  sand  dunes  of  cream- 
yellow  color,  with  their  beautiful  curved  ridges  and  waves, 
that  are  covered  with  a  fretwork  of  wind  ripples  and  the 
curious  hieroglyphic  footprints  that  are  the  records  of  wander- 
ing animals.  These  dunes  are  ever  slowly  crawling  over  the 
valleys  and  climbing  up  the  flanks  of  the  mountains  like  huge 
waves,  their  contrasts  in  color  bringing  out  in  strong  relief  the 
tones  and  sculpturing  of  the  cliffs.  Every  zephyr  that  blows 
is  busy  remodeling  their  rounded  domes  and  graceful  curving 
crests,  and  in  varying  the  lace-like  traceries  that  give  grace 
and  elegance  to  the  structure.  Altogether,  they  form  an 
interesting  study. 

The  presence  of  sand  in  large  quantities,  in  the  salt,  soda, 
borax,  and  niter  beds,  is  soon  understood,  if  one  studies  the 
seolian  sands  awhile.  At  the  Searles  Borax  Lake,  it  was 
found  that,  after  a  crust  had  been  removed  from  one  part  of 
the  marsh,  it  filled  with  water  that  soon  deposited  crystals  of 
borax,  and  in  six  months  the  waters  were  blown  so  full  of  fine 
sand  that  the  new  crust  contained  50  per  cent  of  sand. 

These  sands  account  for  the  presence  of  sand  in  all  of  the 
plava  lake  deposits  of  the  deserts. 

1 1  TERRACE  DEPOSITS. 

The  old  margins  of  the  great  Lakes  Anbury  and  Le  Conte 
are  now  found  far  beyond  the  present  shore-lines  and  several 
hundred  feet  above  them,  showing  clearly  two  great  flood 
periods,  separated  by  a  period  of  complete  desiccation. 
These  terraces  are  composed  of  alternating  strata  or  layers  of 
sands  and  clays,  that  carry  also  layers  and  beds  of  gypsum, 
rock  salt,  borax,  soda,  or  even  niter,  according  to  locality; 
forming  deposits  of  commercial  value  high  above  the  beds  of 
the  playa  lakes.  The  borax  at  Furnace  Creek,  the  niter  at 
Owl  Springs,  and  the  beds  of  salines  in  the  hills,  miles  away 
from  the  present  Salton  Sea,  are  examples  of  these  terrace 
beds.  The  alternating  layers  of  the  terrace  deposits  are  the 
stony  pages  that  contain  the  record  of  the  gradual  drying  up 
of  the  two  vast  lakes  of  Anbury  and  Le  Conte;  lakes  that 
were  themselves  but  the  remnants  of  the  vast  inland  sea  that 


22  THE   SALINE    DEPOSITS   OF   CALIFORNIA. 

once  covered  the  Great  Basin.  The  terraces  and  beds  exist 
to-day  only  where  their  local  position  has  protected  them  from 
the  enormous  erosion  of  recent  geological  times. 

The  various  terraces  were  originally  contour  lines,  drawn  at 
definite  horizons  around  the  borders  of  the  basins  by  the 
waves  of  the  lakes.  They  were,  therefore,  originally,  hori- 
zontal and  parallel  one  with  another.  They  are  not  now 
horizontal,  on  account  of  the  movements  of  the  rocks  since 
the  evaporation  of  the  lakes. 

12  GEOLOGICAL  HISTORY. 

The  results  of  volcanic  action  are  plainly  seen  all  over  the 
deserts  of  the  Great  Basin,  in  the  form  of  hills  of  lava,  basaltic 
trap,  lava  sheets,  and  in  the  dikes  of  diabase  and  diorite  which 
intrude  into  the  schists. 

The  changes  of  each  period  obliterate  a  part  of  the  records 
of  its  predecessor,  and  the  earlier  periods,  so  that  the  complete- 
ness of  onr  knowledge  is  in  the  inverse  order  of  their  antiquity. 

At  the  end  of  the  Palaeozoic,  the  portion  of  the  Great  Basin 
covered  by  Lakes  Aubury  and  Le  Conte  subsided  and  was 
covered  by  shallow  inland  seas,  not  connected  with  the  Pacific 
Ocean,  in  which  salt,  gypsum,  and  other  salines  were  deposited 
by  evaporation.  At  the  close  of  the  Jnra-Trias,  the  Sierra 
Nevada  was  born.  The  Eocene  Tertiary  is  represented  by 
clay  beds,  deposited  during  that  long  period  of  subsidence. 
They  appear  as  some  800  feet  of  clays,  bedded  on  the  edge  of 
the  eruptive  rocks  in  horizontal  and  undisturbed  strata,  having 
a  peculiar,  creamy  color. 

In  the  Amargosa  River  canon,  and  elsewhere,  the  Champ- 
lain  epoch  of  the  Quaternary  period  is  represented  by  gravels 
150  feet  deep,  covering  the  Eocene  clays,  and  it  is  only  where 
these  gravels  are  eroded  that  the  clay  beds  appear. 

As  the  geologist  reads  the  records  of  the  past,  as  written  on 
the  pages  of  stone,  he  sees  that  during  the  Quaternary  the 
Sierra  Nevada  and  other  ranges  around  the  desert  were 
crowned  with  vast  snow  fields,  from  beneath  which  flowed 
many  magnificent  ice  rivers,  or  glaciers,  that  turned  what  are 
now  desert  valleys  into  vast  lakes.  He  sees  that  there  were 
three  distinct  periods  of  flooding,  or  filling,  these  lakes. 

The  first  great  rise  was  preceded  by  a  long  period  of  desicca- 


SAND   l>(   N  ES    1  i]    \TH   VA  LLEY 


NITER    HILLS,    SARATOGA    DISTRICT,    SHOWING    THE  ANCIENT  BKACH 
RESTING  «>N"  THE  FLANK  OF  THE  AVAWATZ   RANGE- 


24  THE    SALINE    DEPOSITS   OF    CALIFORNIA. 

tion,  and  was  followed  by  a  second  dry  epoch,  during  which 
the  valleys  of  the  district  were  more  of  a  desert  than  they  are 
now.  During  the  second  flood  stage,  the  lakes  rose  higher 
than  at  the  time  of  the  first  high  water,  and  then  evaporated 
to  complete  desiccation.  During  these  three  major  oscillations, 
there  were  many  minor  ones. 

At  the  times  when  the  two  great  lakes  approached  complete 
desiccation,  their  pools  formed  independent  areas,  or  lakes, 
which  completely  evaporated.  The  saline  matter  precipitated 
at  such  times  was  so  completely  buried  beneath  playa  deposits 
that  when  the  lakes  were  filled  with  water  again,  during 
another  oscillation,  the  salts  were  not  dissolved  again,  being 
protected  by  the  clay  layers  and  marls  that  absorbed  the 
efflorescent  salines  when  the  lake  was  greatly  concentrated  by 
evaporation.  Thus,  alternating  evaporation  and  filling  have 
been  large  factors  in  forming  the  stratified  layers  of  clays  and 
saline  matters  now  found  in  the  deserts.  The  debris  of  floods 
also  assisted  in  burying  the  salines,  and  the  ever  moving 
seolian  sands  have  been  busy  for  ages  in  covering  up  the 
products  of  evaporation,  while  other  salines  have  been  con- 
centrated and  buried  along  the  beach  and  terrace  lines. 

The  borax  beds  at  Calico,  and  the  numerous  veins  of  rock 
salt  and  other  salines,  were  buried  in  a  similar  way  during  the 
Tertiary  age,  while  most  of  the  later  layers  and  beds  of 
salines  were  formed  during  the  history  of  Lakes  Anbury  and 
Le  Conte. 

13  VOLCANIC  DISTURBANCES. 

Lavas  in  the  form  of  vesicular  basalt,  pumice  stone,  volcanic 
tufa,  etc.,  are  found  on  the  ranges  of  a  greater  portion  of  the 
desert,  and  their  history  will  form  an  interesting  study  for 
future  workers  in  this  field.  Much  disturbance  has  taken 
place  since  the  early  Neocene  times,  and  the  oscillations  to 
which  the  desert  has  been  subjected  have  tilted  and  plicated 
the  underlying  strata. 

14  EROSION. 

In  whatever  direction  one  turns,  he  is  at  once  impressed  witli 
the  vastness  of  the  erosion  that  has  taken  place  everywhere  in 
the  Great  Basin.     The  desert  is  not,  as  some  suppose,  a  vast 


THE    GREAT    BASIN.  25 

plain,  but  consists  of  long  parallel  mountain  ranges,  inclosing 
valleys  of  sand. 

Mam  of  these  valleys,  at  the  present  time,  have  no  outlet. 
The  mountains,  with  a  few  exceptions,  are  destitute  of  trees  and 
all  vegetation  except  brush,  while  the  valleys  are  either  barren 
wastes  of  sand  or  covered  with  a  scanty  growth  of  "grease 
wood."  The  present  ranges  were  formerly  from  1000  to  3000 
feet  higher  than  they  are  now.  and  stood  as  picturesque  islands 
in  the  ancient  sea.  The  material  eroded  from  the  ranges  has 
covered  the  desert  with  gravel  washes,  sand,  sand  dunes,  scarps, 
etc.,  half  tilling  tin-  original  valleys.  Nearly  all  the  washes 
contain  metamorphic,  igneous,  and  volcanic  rocks  in  fragments. 

Sooner  or  later  the  "cloudburst"  visits  every  tract  of  land 
in  the  desert,  bringing  down  more  eroded  material,  and  redis- 
tributes the  surface  of  the  washes,  obliterating  all  roads  and 
trails,  or  making  them  so  rough  that  only  the  strongest  vehicles 
can  travel  over  them. 

15  CHEMICAL. 

According  to  Bunsen,  the  composition  of  the  solid  crust  of 
the  earth,  in  eoo  parts,  by  weight,  is  as  follows: 

Pi  i  Cent. 

( (xygen 44.0  to  48.7 

Silica 22. S  to  36.2 

Alumina 9.9  to  6.1 

Iron 9.9  to  2.4 

Calcium 6.6  to  0.9 

Magnesium 2.7  to  o.  1 

Sodium 2.4  to  2.5 

Potassium 1.7  to  3.1 

During  the  erosion  of  the  mountains,  the  soda  and  potash 
minerals  are  carried  down  into  the  valleys,  forming  one  source 
of  supph  . 

Another  source  is  from  the  underground  waters,  which, 
under  the  heat  and  pressure  to  which  they  are  subjected,  take- 
up  salines  from  the  rocks  with  which  they  come  in  contact. 

Under  the  head  of  Mineralogy,  in  the  section  on  Borates,  it 
will  be  noted  that  a  number  of  minerals  carry  boric  acid  in 
large  quantities,  and  hot  fissure  springs  may  derive  their  boric 
contents  from  such  minerals. 

For  example,  axinite  is  a  compound  of  boric  acid,  lime,  and 
alumina,   and  is   found  in   granite   rocks;  the  tourmalines  all 


26  THE    SALINE    DEPOSITS   OF    CALIFORNIA. 

carry   from  3  to  12  per  cent  of  boric  acid;  datolite,  a  silicate  of 

lime  rich  in  boric  acid,  is  found  in  trap  rocks;  danbnrite,  a 
silicate  of  lime  with  22  per  cent  of  boric  acid,  is  found  in 
dolomite;  while  others,  such  as  warwickite  and  szaibelyite, 
might  be  quoted  to  show  that  the  rock  formations  buried  deep 
in  the  earth  carry  boric  acid  and  salines  accessible  to  the  action 
of  solvent  waters  that  finally  escape  to  the  surface  as  springs. 
Similar  examples  of  the  other  salines  may  be  noted  in  a  study 
of  their  mineralogy. 

Surface  waters  derive  their  chemical  impurities  mainly  from 
the  rocks  over  which  they  flow.  When  draining  a  granitic  or 
volcanic  area,  they  are  rich  in  potash  or  soda;  when  flowing 
over  limestones,  they  are  saturated  with  calcium  carbonate. 
.Such  springs  and  such  streams,  in  the  geological  ages  of  the 
past,  entered  the  two  great  lakes,  and  gave  to  their  waters  the 
soda,  potash,  borax,  lime,  and  niter  that  they  held. 

The  formation  of  nitrates,  whether  in  the  soil  or  in  the 
original  porous  feldspathic  rocks,  is  due  to  the  gradual  oxida- 
tion by  the  air  of  nitrogenous  organic  matter  in  contact  with 
an  alkali.  In  order  to  understand  how  these  deposits  were 
formed,  one  must  know  something  about  what  ocean  waters 
generally  contain,  how  soluble  the  various  salines  are,  and  in 
what  order  they  would  be  deposited  on  evaporation. 

The  voyage  of  H.  M.  S.  "  Challenger  "  showed  that  deep  ocean 
water  is  remarkably  constant  in  its  composition;  but  in  the 
publication  of  their  analyses  they  disregard  the  rarer  sub- 
stances, such  as  the  borates  and  nitrates,  confining  themselves 
mainly  to  the  chlorides  and  sulphates.  The  general  composi- 
tion of  the  salines  of  deep  ocean  water  is  given  as  follows 
(Chall.  Kxpd.,  vol.  1,  p.  204): 

Chloride  of  sodium 77.7 

Chloride  of  magnesium     10.8 

Sulphate  of  magnesium 4.7 

Sulphate  of  calcium 3.6 

.Sulphate  of  potassium 2.6 

Bromide  of  magnesium 0.3 

Carbonate  of  calcium 0.3 

1 00.0 

The  average  of  the  total  solids  in  ocean  water  is  35.19  parts 
in  a  thousand. 

The  rate  of  solubility  of  salines  is  another  important  point 


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28  THE   SALINE    DEPOSITS   <>F    CALIFORNIA. 

to  study  in  determining  the  formation  of  the  beds,  as  waters  of 
complex  composition,  when  subject  to  slow  evaporation,  do  not 
deposit  their  salts,  or  salines,  in  a  homogeneous  mass,  but  in 
successive  layers  or  strata  of  varying  composition,  the  order 
varying  according  to  the  special  local  conditions.  Disregarding 
the  chemical  reactions  of  the  salts  upon  each  other,  the  con- 
tained salines  will  be  deposited  inversely  as  the  order  of  their 
solubilities;  those  least  soluble  being  deposited  first  and  those 
most  soluble  being  deposited  last.  The  solubility  of  common 
salt  (chloride  of  sodium),  in  water  of  different  temperatures,  is 
as  follows: 

Temp,  of  Brine 32        500       86°       104°     1400     176'     2 

100  parts  Water 35.6     35.6     36.0     36.3     37.0     3S.0     40.3     of  Salt. 

The  solubility  of  sulphate  of  lime  (gypsum)  in  water  is  as 
follows,  giving  the  parts  of  water  required  to  dissolve  one  part 
of  gypsum  at  the  given  temperature: 

Temperature  of  Brine .... 32"     64.5"     100"     127°    2120 
I  part  of  Gypsum 415     3S6       368      375      45s 

That  is,  it  would  require  458  parts  of  water,  at  a  tempera- 
ture of  2i2c,  to  dissolve  one  part  of  gypsum.  Sulphate  of  lime 
is,  however,  much  more  soluble  in  salt  brine  than  it  is  in  pure 
water. 

The  solubility  of  niter  (nitrate  of  soda)  is  as  follows,  100 
parts  of  water  dissolving  the  given  parts  of  niter  at  the  given 
temperature: 

Tem.    0°    10°    20=    30°    40°  500  6o°   700   80°  900  ioo° 

Niter. 13  21. 1  31.2  44.5  64  86  in   139  173  206  247  pts.  of  Niter  dissolve. 

At  114°,  the  boiling  point  of  the  saturated  solution,  100 
parts  of  water  dissolve  327.4  parts  of  niter. 

It  will  be  seen  at  once  what  an  important  part  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  leaching  and  solvent  waters  has  played  in  the 
formation  of  the  deposits  in  the  deserts. 

16  ORDER  OF  THE  DEPOSITS. 

The  succession  of  chemical  precipitates  formed  by  the 
evaporation  of  ocean  water  has  been  well  described  by  M. 
Dieulafait  in  the  Popular  Science  Monthly  of  October,  1882. 

He  gives  the  deposits  one  would  find  (theoretically)  by  dig- 
ging down,  as  follows,  counting  from  the  top: 


THE    GREAT    BASIN.  29 

••  I  deliquescent  salts,"  such  as  chloride  <>t'  magnesium,  nitrates 
ni  soda  and  potash;  "carnalite,"  or  the  double  chloride  of 
potassium  and  magnesium;  mixed  salts,  including  chloride  of 
sodium  and  sulphate  of  magnesium;  sea  salt,  mixed  with  sul- 
phate of  magnesia;  pure  sea  salt  (rock  salt);  pure  gypsum; 
weak  deposits  of  carbonate  of  lime  with  sesquioxide  of  iron,  etc. 

In  the  evaporation  of  lakes  like  A.ubury  and  I.c  Conte,  this 
order  of  deposits  would  be  altered  by  fluctuations  of  tempera- 
ture, variations  in  density,  and  other  disturbing  conditions. 

In  general,  the  concentration  of  surface  waters  by  evapora- 
tion produces  brines  of  two  characters;  in  one  class,  sodium 
chloride  predominates  over  all  other  salts;  in  the  other  class, 
the  alkaline  carbonates  are  abundant,  especially  in  the  vicinitj 
of  volcanic  rocks. 

Should  the  desiccation  be  incomplete,  the  remaining  waters 
would  form  a  dense  mother  liquor,  rich  in  magnesia,  soda,  and 
potash,  and  containing  the  rarer  substances,  such  as  lithium, 
nitrates,  boric  acid,  etc. 

When  the  w. iters  of  these  two  great  lakes,  or  inland  seas, 
were  evaporated,  the  process  was  often  interrupted;  the  desic- 
cation was  incomplete,  and  the  niter  and  borax  beds  are  the 
results  of  the  final  complete  evaporation  of  the  dense  mother 
liquors  along  the  shores  of  the  lowest  depressions  of  the 
bottoms  of  these  ancient  lakes. 

The  causes  of  some  of  these  interruptions  were  that  the 
rivers,  during  their  flood  season,  brought  down  sediments,  and 
during  these  flood  seasons  the  supply  of  water  was  greater 
than  the  evaporation,  so  that  the  waters  were  diluted,  and  the 
depositing  of  salt  and  gypsum  ceased;  on  the  contrary,  during 
the  dry  seasons  the  deposits  of  sediment  and  mud  would  be 
nil,  while  that  of  the  salines  would  proceed  rapidly.  Thus  the 
deposits  at  the  bottoms  of  these  lakes  would  consist  of  alterna- 
tions of  salt,  or  salines,  and  sediments. 

Chemical  reaction  took  place  also  among  the  various  salts 
as  the  lakes  became  concentrated,  which  affected  the  nature  of 
the  precipitates;  and  there  is  much  work  yet  for  the  chemist 
to  study  out  fully  the  genesis  of  the  various  borates,  chlorides, 
sulphates,  and  nitrates  formed. 

Alternate  heating  and  cooling  also  promote  the  depositing 
of  the  salts,  as  shown  by  the  tables  of  solubilities,  and  this  fact 
has    been    taken    advantage    of    in    the    Balard     and    Merels 


30  THE    SALINE    DEPOSITS   OF    CALIFORNIA. 

processes  in  manufacturing".  The  phenomena  may  also  be 
observed  in  Salt  Lake,  Utah,  or  at  Owens  Lake,  where  each 
year,  on  the  approach  of  cold  weather,  the  waters  lose  their 
transparency  and  become  opalescent  with  the  crystals  formed, 
that  soon  become  portions  of  the  stratified  layers  along  the 
shore.  The  heat  of  summer  and  the  cold  of  winter  had  a 
large  share  in  the  depositing  of  the  niter  beds  along  the  shores 
and  terraces  of  Lake  Aubury.  Where  fissure  springs  charged 
with  boric  acid  poured  their  contents  into  the  saline  waters  of 
the  lakes,  or  where  they  came  in  contact  with  the  sodas 
already  deposited,  local  beds  of  borates  were  formed,  and  the 
chemical  reactions  become  more  complex. 

17  TUFA. 

The  calcium  carbonates  are  most  abundant  where  the  waters 
of  the  two  lakes  were  the  deepest,  and  are  inconspicuous  or 
wanting  where  the  waters  were  shallow.  They  form  now  the 
tufas  around  the  shores  of  the  ancient  lakes.  In  some  places 
they  have  cemented  the  gravels  of  the  earlier  formed  terraces 
and  embankments  into  a  compact  conglomerate. 

IS  JOINTING. 

The  marly  clays  of  the  saline  beds  usually  break  into  pris- 
matic and  cubical  blocks  on  weathering;  the  vertical  faces  oi 
the  blocks  being  determined  by  joint  planes,  and  the  horizontal 
by  planes  of  lamination.  Some  of  the  bluffs  in  the  canon  of 
the  Amargosa  River  are  cut  from  top  to  bottom  by  joints  that 
have  become  filled  with  gypsum.  A  section  of  the  niter  hills 
in  the  Upper  and  Lower  Canon  beds  shows  sediments  consisting 
of  fine,  homogeneous,  evenly  stratified,  marly  clays,  which 
show  a  distinct  lamination  parallel  with  the  planes  of  bedding, 
laminations  that  are  the  result  of  the  slow  accumulations  of 
fine  sediments  and  not  of  pressure,  as  is  the  case  with  many 
older  rocks. 

The  gravels  deposited  in  shallow  waters  were  much  agitated 
by  waves  and  currents,  and  present  all  along  the  shores  of 
Lake  Aubury  typical  examples  of  "current  bedding."  "drift 
bedding."   "cross  bedding,"    "  false  bedding,"  etc. 


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32  Till".    SALINE    DEPOSITS   OF    CALIFORNIA. 

19  FOSSILS. 

The  remains  of  mastodon,  camel,  ox,  horse,  etc..  in  the  playa 
lake  at  Resting  Springs  and  elsewhere,  and  the  spear  and  arrow- 
heads of  obsidian  found  in  the  sediments,  show  that  primitive 
man  lived  along  the  shores  of  Lake  Anbury  during  the  later 
part  of  its  history. 

The  remains  of  a  palaeotherium  were  found  in  the  clay  banks 
of  the  niter  bed  in  the  I'pper  Canon  beds  of  the  Amargosa 
Canon,  showing  that  some  of  these  date  back  to  the  Eocene 
Tertiary. 


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PART  II 


BORATES 


20  HISTORY. 

California  in  1849  started  the  gold  mining  industry  in  the 
United  States,  and  fifteen  years  later  followed  it  with  the 
establishment  of  the  borax  industry.  The  twelve  tons  made 
at  Borax  Lake,  on  the  margin  of  Clear  Lake,  in  Lake  County, 
were  the  first  produced  on  the  American  continent. 

The  young  industry  thrived  for  the  next  four  years,  although 
the  maximum  output  of  220  tons  in  one  year  would  seem  small 
now. 

21  FLUCTUATION  OF  PRODUCTION. 

The  next  three  years,  [869,  [870,  and  [871,  were  dark  years 
for  those  watching  the  growth  of  the  youngster,  for  the  supply 
oi  the  pure  crystals  in  the  blue  mud  of  the  famous  little  lake 
had  given  out,  and  an  unruly  artesian  well  had  ruined  the 
waters  of  the  lake  by  diluting  them   beyond  the  profit  point. 

The  deposits  of  Lake  Hachinhama,  on  the  opposite  side  of 
Clear  Lake,  exhausted  themselves  in  yielding  140  tons  in  [872. 

The  prospectors,  however,  had  been  aroused  to  interest  in 
the  mineral  that  was  worth  over  $600  per  ton  and  "only  had 
to  be  shoveled  up  to  be  ready  for  the  market,"  and  discoveries 
in  the  deserts  of  California  and  Nevada  followed  each  other 
with  bewildering  rapidity. 

In  [873,  San  Bernardino  County  began  her  big  record  with 
the  production  of  515  tons  from  the  so-called  borax  "marshes," 
or  the  "dry  lakes"  of  the  desert.  Inyo  County  soon  followed 
in  lively  rivalry,  and  the  high-water  mark  of  the  early  years 
was  reached  in  1876,  when  1437  tons  were  produced,  worth  at 
that  time  over  S31 2,000.  From  1880  to  1888  the  production 
3-Bul.  24  '  (33) 


34  THE   SALINE    DEPOSITS   OF    CALIFORNIA. 

increased  slowly  but  steadily  from  609  to  1405  tons  in  a  year. 
The  year  1NS7  saw  the  suspension  of  work  on  the  "marsh" 
beds,  and  the  establishment  of  works  on  "eolemanite"  or 
borate  of  lime  ores,  in  the  Calico  district,  San  Bernardino 
County.  Since  the  discovery  of  these  beds,  large  establishments 
have  been  erected  in  Alameda,  near  San  Francisco,  at  Marion 
and  Daggett,  and  at  Bavonue,  Xew  Jersey,  for  the  treatment 
of  borates,  and  the  production  has  risen  from  1405  tons  in 
1888  to  25,837  tons  in  1900.  The  discoveries  in  Kern  and 
Ventura  counties  also  led  to  the  establishment  of  boric  acid 
manufacturing  by  the  Stauffer  Chemical  Works  of  San  Fran- 
cisco, and  the  making  of  borax  by  the  Chas.  Pfizer  &  Co. 
works  of  New  York. 

22  FLUCTUATION  IN  VALUES. 

When  borax  was  first  made  in  California,  in  1S64,  the  value 
of  the  refined  article  was  39  cents  per  pound,  or  $780  per  ton. 
In  spite  of  the  discovery  in  Fake  County,  the  price,  while 
gradually  declining,  did  not  fall  below  30  cents  until  1873, 
when  the  borax  "marshes"  of  San  Bernardino  County  produced 
over  one  million  pounds,  worth  24!  cents  per  pound,  or  $496 
per  ton. 

The  next  year,  1874,  saw  the  price  fall  to  14^  cents  per 
pound,  or  $284  per  ton,  and  the  decline  continued  until  1879, 
when  it  stood  at  9  cents  per  pound,  or  $180  per  ton.  From 
1880  to  1883,  the  price  varied  from  i2'4  to  14^  cents  per 
pound,  or  from  $245  to  $295  per  ton.  Prices  in  Xew  York 
varied  more  widely  than  on  the  Western  coast,  as  may  be  noted 
from  one  incident  of  many  that  might  be  cpioted.  In  January, 
1883,  a  tariff  law  was  enacted  that  went  into  force  in  July  of 
that  year.  During  this  six  months,  while  imports  were  free 
from  duty,  2500  tons  of  boric  acid,  equivalent  to  3500  tons  of 
borax,  were  imported.  This,  added  to  the  large  accumulations 
of  the  home  manufacturers,  caused  the  price  to  drop  to  4^ 
cents  per  pound  in  New  York,  or  less  than  the  cost  of  pro- 
duction. 

On  the  Coast,  the  result  was  that  the  producers  combined 
and  waited  for  living  prices.  From  1888  to  1894,  the  price 
stood  still,  practically,  ranging  from  6  to  7  '  _•  cents  per  pound, 
or  from  $120  to  $150  per  ton.     Since  that  time,  the  value  of 


z 


z 

p 

: 
u 

x. 

3 

a: 

< 
/. 

i: 
W 

S 


w 

o 
o 

< 

p 

en 

3! 
O 


X 
<< 

: 

pq 
en 
x 
ft) 


- 


36  THE    SALINE    DEPOSITS  OF   CALIFORNIA. 

the  refined  article  has  been  5  or  6  cents  per  pound  on  the  Coast, 
and  about  a  cent  higher  in  the  East. 

Owing  to  the  establishment  of  the  immense  works  in  New 
Jersey,  the  shipments  to  the  Kast  are  mainly  in  the  form  of 
crude  borates,  worth  from  $20  to  S35  per  ton,  according  to 
purity.  The  depression  in  prices,  owing  to  rivalry  between 
companies  competing  for  the  market,  has  been  done  away  with, 
and  the  industry  has  outlived  the  disturbing  features  incident 
to  youth,  and  has  finally  settled  to  a  more  certain  and  stable 
basis. 

While  the  margin  of  profit  is  too  small  to  permit  the  work- 
ing of  any  but  the  most  favorably  located  and  economically 
handled  deposits,  yet  the  prevailing  low  prices  are  evidently 
causing  an  increased  consumption  of  borates  in  the  arts  and 
manufactures  in  which  they  have  been  employed,  and  new  uses 
are  being  continually  found  for  the  various  compounds  of  boric 
acid.  In  this  extended  and  ever  growing  consumption,  the 
manufacturers  find  their  compensation  for  low  prices. 

The  following  notes  and  tables  give  some  of  the  history  of 
the  borax  industry  in  detail. 

23  HISTORICAL  NOTES. 

1856.  On  January  Sth.  Dr.  John  A.  Yeatch  first  discovered 
the  existence  of  borax  in  the  United  States.  He  had  been 
boiling  some  of  the  water  from  the  Lick  Spring  (or  Tuscan 
Spring,  as  it  was  then  called),  and  happened  to  set  the  water 
aside  when  it  was  concentrated  enough  for  the  crystals  of 
biborate  of  soda  to  crystallize  out.  Noting  the  crystals  on  the 
side  of  the  vessel  when  he  resumed  work,  he  tested  them,  and 
the  discovery  was  made.  These  springs  where  the  discovery 
was  made  are  located  on  Section  32,  Township  28  North, 
Range  2  West,  Mount  Diablo  base  and  meridian. 

In  the  same  year,  the  Doctor  discovered  the  presence  of 
borax,  in  small  quantities,  at  the  mouth  of  Pitt  River,  Shasta 
County,  and  traces  of  the  saline  in  a  number  of  the  springs 
along  the  Coast  Range,  but  it  was  not  until  September  that  he 
visited  Clear  Lake  and  examined  the  borax  lake  or  marsh  on 
its  eastern  side  and  found  the  locality  that  was  to  prove  the 
first  producer  of  borax  in  the  Americas. 

1860.  Dr.  John  A.  Yeatch  discovered  traces  of  borax  in 
Mono  Lake,  Mono  Countv. 


BORATES — HISTORICAL    NOTES.  37 

1863.  J.  W.  Searles  discovered  borax  in  "Borax  L,ake"oi 
Searles  Lake,  near  the  northwest  corner  of  San  Bernardino 
County,  adjoining  the  Enyo  County  line,  but  did  not  follow  up 
his  discovery.     This  deposit,  which  had  large  works  upon  it 

later  on,  is  in  Townships  43  and  44  East,  Range  25  South, 
M.  I).  M. 

1864.  The  industry  of   producing   borax   began   at   Borax 

Lake,    Lake   County,    with    the    production   of    24,304    pounds, 
worth  39  cents  per  pound. 

1864  to  1868.     During  this  time,  the  production  was  wholly 

from  Borax  Lake,  Lake  County. 

1865  to  1871.  The  value  of  borax  fell  from  37 '  _.  to  31^ 
cents  per  pound. 

1869,1870,1871.  No  borax  made,  owing  to  the  flooding  of 
Borax  Lake  by  an  uncontrollable  artesian  well. 

1871.  In  October,  the  new  mineral  "Priceite"  was  dis- 
covered by  Lieutenant  A.  YV.  Chase,  and  named  after  Thomas 
Price,  the  well-known  mineralogist  of  San  Francisco,  who 
made  the  first  analyses  of  the  mineral. 

1872.  The  production  of  borax  resumed  at  Lake  Hachin- 
hama,  near  Clear  Lake,  Lake  County. 

1873.  Borax  discovered  in  Kern  County,  at  Mesquite 
Springs  (also  known  as  Desert  Springs,  Kane  Springs,  and 
Cane  Springs).  The  discovery  was  made  in  February  in 
Township  30  South,  Range  38  East,  M.  1).  M.  This  year  saw 
work  started  vigorously  also  at  Searles  Lake  in  San  Bernar- 
dino County,  and  the  industry  began  to  assume  importance. 

1873  to  1881.  The  principal  production  was  from  the 
"marshes"  of  San  Bernardino  Counts'. 

1874.  In  April,  J.  \V.  Searles,  David  Searles,  K.  YV.  Shill- 
ings, and  J.  I).  Creigh  located  the  Borax  Lake,  in  the  north- 
western corner  of  San  Bernardino  County,  that  is  known  as 
Searles  Lake.  There  was  a  borax  "boom"  in  Enyo  County, 
150  quarter-sections  of  land  in  .Saline  Valley  being  entered  as 
borax  laud  at  the  United  States  Land  Office  at  Independence. 

1874  to  1878.  The  value  of  borax  steadily  declined,  from  14 
cents  to  8  cents. 


38  THE   SALINE    DEPOSITS   OF    CALIFORNIA. 

1878.  Combinations  were  formed  to  increase  the  price,  which 
led  to  the  formation  of  new  rival  companies. 

1880  to  1887.  Value  i2T4  cents  in  1880,  but  declined  steadily 
until  it  reached  5  ;4  cents  in  1887. 

1882.  Veins  or  beds  of  colemanite  (borate  of  lime)  were 
discovered  in  the  Calico  district,  San  Bernardino  County.  The 
mineral  was  named  after  W.  T.  Coleman,  who  was  associated 
with  P.  M.  Smith  in  its  discovery.  The  principal  production 
was  from  the  "marshes"  of  San  Bernardino  and  Inyo  counties. 

1883.  Work  begun  at  the  mouth  of  Furnace  Creek,  in  the 
north  end  of  Death  Valley.  The  discovery  of  the  Calico  dis- 
trict deposits  caused  a  fall  in  the  price. 

1883  to  1886.  The  principal  production  was  from  the  marshes 
of  San  Bernardino  and  Inyo  counties,  and  the  colemanite  beds 
of  the  Calico  district. 

1887.  Suspension  of  the  working  of  the  "marsh"  beds. 

1888.  The  Pacific  Coast  Borax  Company  formed  a  combina- 
tion of  the  various  works  that  kept  up  the  price  until  1895, 
the  value  being  for  those  years  from  7  to  7^  cents  per  pound. 

1888  to  1893.  The  principal  producers  were  the  works  at 
Calico,  in  San  Bernardino  County,  and  Saline  Valley  in  Inyo 
County. 

1894.  Seventeen  hundred  acres  of  borax  lands  were  located 
at  the  Salt  Wells  in  the  southern  part  of  Inyo  County. 

1895.  Borax  was  located  in  Saline  Valley,  18  miles  north 
of  Keeler.     Price  of  borax  fell  to  5 )  2  cents  per  pound. 

1897.  Work  begun  on  large  factories  at  Bayonne,  New 
Jersey. 

1897  to  1901.  Value  of  the  crude  borax  was  from  S20  to  $25 
per  ton. 

1898.  The  production  of  borax  fell  off.  The  "Borax  Con- 
solidated Ltd.,"  an  international  borax  combine,  was.  formed, 
owning  property  in  the  United  States,  England,  France,  and 
South  America.  Capital,  $7, 000,000,  $4,000,000  being  preferred 
stock  and  the  rest  common  stock. 

Work  was  begun  on  the  erection  of  a  100-ton  plant  at  Borax 
Lake.  San  Bernardino  County,  near  the  old  Searles  works,  but 


BORATES — STATISTICAL    TABU  S. 


::•.» 


24 


was  not  completed,  the  property  passing  into  the  hands  of  the 
syndicate  the  next  year. 

The  railroad  from  Daggett  to  Calico  completed  to  the  borax 
mines. 

1899.     Boras  discovered  in  Ventura  County.     The  extensive 

works  for  borax  and  boric  acid  completed  at  Bayonne,  New 
Jersey.  The  borax  syndicate  secured  control  of  all  but  two  of 
the  then  existing  California  works. 

1899  to  1901.  The  profits  of  the  Borax  Consolidated  Ltd. 
were  Si, 363, 705,  an  increase  of  $30,000  over  that  of  the  pre- 
ceding year. 

Borax  Production  in  California. 


Yi    w; 

Produc- 
tion. 

<! 

—  - 

3* 

—  9 

Total 
Value. 

Remarks. 

1864.-. 

pounds. 

24.304 

39 

.tolls. 

.lolls. 

Lake  Co.,  Borax  Lake. 

1865.... 

251,092 

75° 

94,099 

Lake  Co.,  Borax  Lake. 

1866-.. 

401,632 

33 

660 

132,538 

Lake  Co.,  Horax  Lake. 

1867.... 

439-s-M 

710 

156,137 

Lake  Co.,  Horax  Lake. 

1868.... 

666 

22,384 

Lake  Co.,  Borax  Lake. 

1869 

Nil. 

Nil. 

None  produced. 

1S70.... 

Nil. 

3°i 

604 

Nil. 

None  produced. 

187] 

Nil 

.;'\ 

625 

Nil. 

None  produced. 

- 

2^0,000 

32 

640 

89,600 

Lake  Co.,  Lake  Ilachinliama. 

1*73.--- 

1S75 

- 

1 ,030,000 
[,829,771 

2,336,000 
-909 

496 

255,440 
259.1-'; 
289,080 

312.537 

>  San  Bernardino  Co.,  750,1  ■    lbs. 

/  1  ither  counties,  280,00a  lbs, 

\  San  Bernardino  Co.,  [,729,891  lbs. 

1  1  >ther  counties.  99,980  lbs. 

1  San  Bernardino  Co.,  2,147,000  lbs. 

1  Other  counties,  189,000  lbs. 

,  --in  Bernardino  Co.,  2,752,000  lbs. 

-  1  »ther  counties,  121,9011  lb-. 

1877.--. 

i,9S6,97o 

195 

193.705 

San  Bernardino  Co.  "  Marshi  - 

,840 

66,257 

San  Bernardino  Co.  "  Marshes. 

1880  ... 

-27,146 
tons. 
609 

9 

I2« 

65,443 
149-2)5 

San  Bernardino  Co.  "  Marshes." 
San  Bernardino  Co.  "  M  irsl 

690 

189.750 

San  Bernardino  Co.  "  Marshes." 

1882 

201 ,300 

San  Bernardino  and  Inyo  Co.      Marshes." 

1883... 

900 

295 

265,500 

San  Bernardino  and  Inyo  Co,   'Marshes." 

1884. _.. 

1,019 

•95 

19s 

San  Bernardino  and  Inyo  Co. 

942 

8K 

165 

155,430 

San  Bernardino  and  Inyo  Co.      Marsh,  g 

1886.... 

135 

1: 

San  Bernardino  and  Inyo  Co.  "  Mar-' 

1887.... 

1.015 

115 

116,725 

40 


THE    SAI.IXK    DEPOSITS    OP    CALIFORNIA. 


Borax  Production  in  California — Continued. 


Year. 


Produc- 
tion, 


< 


< 

o 
a 


Total 
Value. 


Remarks. 


1889.... 

1890 

1891.... 
1892... 
1893—. 
1894.... 

1895  ■-■ 
1896... 
1897.... 
1898... 

1899.... 

1900 

1901 


tons 

1,405 

965 
3.201 
4,267 

5,525 
3.955 
5.77" 
5>959 
6,754 
8,000 
8,300 

20,357 

25,837 
22,221 


7.v. 

dolls. 

/ 

140 

7 

I40 

6 

120 

:'-• 

150 

7lA 

150 

l% 

150 

7 

140 

5 

100 

5 

100 

6% 

135 

6 

6 

120 

5 

7# 

dolls. 

l,/,,t,_V> 

145,473 
480,152 

640,000 

838,787 
593,292 
807,807 
595,900 

675,400 

1,080,000 

1,153,000 
1,139,882 

1,013,251 

894,505 


San  Bernardino,  Calico  District,  Ventura  Co. 

San    Bernardino,  Calico  District,  Ventura   CO. 

Inyo  Co.,  refined.  115  tons. 

San  Bernardino  Co.,  refined,  £,487  tons. 

San  Bernardino  and  Inyo  Counties. 

San  Bernardino  and  Inyo  Counties. 

San  Bernardino  and  Inyo  Counties. 
San  Bernardino  Co  .  5,189  tons. 


Inyo  Co.,  581  tons. 

Sail  Bernardino  Co.,  5,559  tons. 

Inyo  Co.,  400  tons. 

\  Sail  Bernardino  Co.,  6,505  tons. 
/   Inyo  Co..  249  tons. 

San  Bernardino  and  Inyo  Counties. 

San  Bernardino  Co. 

Inyo  Co.,  refined,  200  tons. 

Kern  Co.,  refilled.  27  tons. 

San  Bernardino  Co.,  refined,  5.880  tons. 
I   Ventura  Co..  crude,  250  tons,  at  $26. 
y  San  Bernardino  Co.,  crude,  14,000  tons,  at  535. 

San  Bernardino  Co. 

San  Bernardino,  Ventura,  and  Invo  Counties. 


25 


General  Production  of  Borax. 

(Metric  tons). 


Year. 

I'nited 
States. 

Calcium 
Borate. 

Chili. 

Calcium 
Borate. 

India. 
Borax. 

Germany. 

Boracite. 

Italy.           Peru. 

Boric        Calcium 
Acid.          Borate. 

Turkey. 

Pander- 
mite. 

1894 

1895  

5,95o 
6,126 
12,310 
17,600 
13,911 
21,834 

6,700 
4.532 
7,486 
3,168 
7,034 
n,95i 

367 
400 
340 
280 

1S4 

'7'' 
150 
1S4 
198 
230 
183 

2,746 

2,633 
2,616 

2,704 
2,650 
2,674 

800 
4,000 

1. 179 

[1,850 

7.178 

7,638 

9,100 
9,oSi 

1896 

1S97 ■ 

1898 

12,626 

11.375 

1899 — 

BORATES — STATISTICAL    TABU  S. 


41 


26 


Value  of  Refined  Borax. 


Ykak. 


\'"kk  Price. 
Price 


per 
round.        Highest. 


Ki  MARKS. 


Lowest 


864... 
- 
866  .. 

868... 
869... 

- 

873  — 

B74 

875— 

877  -■ 
87S... 
879  .. 
880... 
881... 
882... 
883... 

885     . 

889 
890 

891 

- 

893- 

894  .. 

895  - 

896  .. 

S97 ... 
898... 

S99- 

900... 
901... 


3°i 
35j 
3iK 

32 

'4J 

i2# 

m 
9 

8K 

7 
7 
6 

7% 
7H 

. 

5 

6 
6 
5 

7', 


50 
Feb 

i"  c,  35 

No* 

Sep) 

Mar.,  40 

Mar.,  35 

July-  37 
Maj 

Feb.,  38 

Feb.,  24 

Nov.,  17 

Mar.,  16 

Jan.,  14 

Jan.,  12 

Jan.  11 

Mar.,  12 

Jan.,  15 

May.  17 

Jan.,  16 


Mar 

Sept.,  31 
July,  31 

Mar 

J»iy.  34 

Jan.,  30 
Jan.,  30 
Jan.,  30 
Jan..  30 
Sept.,  24 
1  >ec. ,  1 4 

Jan..  12 
Nov.,  10 
Dec.,     9 

J"iy.    7'4 

July.      9 

Dec,  10 

13 

Jan.,   13 

July 


First  product  in  America,  Lake  County. 

125  tons  produced  in  California. 

200  tons  produced  in  California. 

220  tons  produced  in  California. 

32  tons  produced  in  California. 

None  produced  in  California. 

None  produced  in  California. 

None  produced  in  California. 

140  tons  produced  in  California. 

515  tons  produced  in  California.     IS- 
eries in  Kern  and  San  Bernardino  Cos. 

915  tons  produced  in  California,      liooin  in 

Inyo  County. 

1  [68  tons  produced  in  California. 
1436  tons  produced  in  California. 

903  tons  produced  in  California. 

373   tons    produced    in    California,       First 
combine  formed. 

ms  produced  in  C  alifornia. 

609  tons  produced  in  California. 

690  tons  produced  in  California. 

732   tons  produced   in   California.     Calico 
I  listrict  discovered. 

900  tons  produced   in   California.      New 
Tariff  Law. 

ioigtoiis  produced  in  California. 

942  tons  produced  in  California. 

1285  tons  produced  in  California. 

1015  tons  produced  in  California, 

1405  tons  produced  in  California.    Pacific 
Coast  Borax  Co.  combine  formed. 
ins  produced  in  California. 

■  us  produced  in  California. 

4267  tons  produced  in  California. 

OUS  produced  in  California. 

3955  tons  produced  in  California. 

5760  tons  produced  in  California. 

5959  tons  produced  in  California. 

67J  1  tons  produced  in  California. 

8000  tons  produced  in  California. 

8300  tons  produced  in  California.      Borax 
Cons   Ltd.  formed. 

20357  tons  produced  in  California. 

7  tons  produced  in  California. 
22221  tons  produced  in  California. 


42 


THE    SALINE    DEPOSITS   OF   CALIFORNIA 


27 


Imports  of  Borates  into  the  United  States. 


Yl     \K. 


is.ikic  Acid. 


Pounds. 


Value. 


Borates.  Crude. 


Pounds. 


Value. 


Borax 


Pounds.         Value. 


1867 

1868 

1869 

1870 

1871 

1872 



1874 

1875 
1876  ...  . 

1877 

1878  ...... 

1879.... 

.... 

18S1 

1882 

1883 

1884 

1885 

1886 

1887    .... 

18S8 

1889 

1890 

1891  ... 
1892 

1893  .... 

1894  .... 
1895.... 
1S96.... 

189S 

1899.... 
1900  ... 
1901 


770.756 

$73,396 

343.993 

22,845 

99S.°33 

109,974 

'45 

173,806 

1,204,049 

185,477 

■.103,974 

191,575 

1,222,006 

255.186 

233,955 

52,752 

4L742 

6,280 

137.518 

15,771 

107,468 

11.231 

22,839 

651 

306,462 

21,888 

243.723 

18.473 

187,058 

15-77' 

53o. 

71,343 

4.334.432 

580,171 

44.512 

4-494 

48,517 

4,035 

430.655 

26,23s 

376,184 

19.885 

1s7.777 

26.394 

676,736 

36,814 

867,802 

43.967 

666.;>.5 

41,019 

701,625 

39.418 

77'  -775 

40,568 

298,990 

19.282 

925,158 

42,056 

555-769 

21,899 

582,002 

473.251 

725.005 


20,560 

17.436 

26,629 


22,293 

54,822 

2,616 

5 

Nil 
Nil 
588 
Nil 

55 

286 

Nil 

22.122 

Nil 

Nil 

Nil 

142 
Nil 

4 

33 

455 

Nil 

29,60s 

414.151 
40 

543,967 

441,066 

4,234,261 

4,307,100 

5.204.612 

4.23S 
42,165 

• 
99,692 


J711 

2,985 

8.01 1 

322 

1 

8,000 

Nil 

Nil 

?S 

Nil 

12 

61 

Nil 

742 

Nil 

Nil 

Nil 

34 

Nil 

1 

4 

38 

Nil 

800 

17,681 

6 

13,659 

11.427 
105.604 

104,951 

79,268 

92,108 

2,979 

4.306 

8.983 


49.052 
-9.183 
89,695 
97,078 
134.927 

9,284 

3,86o 

5.153 
5.145 
3,50O 
3.492 
3472 

1527s 
4.156 

10,664 

5,6u 

7.332 

240 


«6,6oi 
10,127 
12,799 

I4,5H 

20,705 

6,288 

2,152 

1,253 

1,224 

691 

676 

514 

490 

2. on 

865 

3.062 

[,359 

1,691 

41 


11,230 

1,327 

[,8l2 

225 

26,429 

11,376 

796 

19.087 

1,128 

[0,232 

962 

51,221 

3.508 

273706 

9.937 

545,045 

20,643 

V 


y 


y. 

■i. 


y. 


S5 

>< 


- 

y 


- 
- 
o 


-  5 

_  > 


y. 


u 


44  THE   SAI.IXK    DEPOSITS   OF    CALIFORNIA. 

BORATES,  BY  COUNTIES. 

28  IN  GENERAL. 

Until  the  discovery  of  natural  borax  in  California,  the  sup- 
ply was  largely  derived  by  artificial  means  from  boric  acid. 
Boric  acid  is  found  among  the  ejecta  of  some  volcanoes,  and 
in  the  jets  of  vapor  which  issue  from  fissures  in  the  regions  of 
volcanic  disturbances. 

The  chief  source  for  many  years  was  the  Mareninea  of  Tus- 
cany, a  desolate  tract  of  some  40  square  miles,  which  is  dotted 
with  jets  of  steam  and  heated  gases  {sojftoiii),  and  hot  springs 
impregnated  with  boric  acid.  The  steam  and  gases  were  led 
into  water  until  it  was  saturated  with  the  acid,  sufficiently  to 
crystallize  out.  Similar  emanations  of  volcanic  vapors  and 
boric  acid  have  been  discovered  in  Nevada. 

As  noted  elsewhere,  most  of  the  springs  of  the  desert  are 
fissure  springs  along  the  line  of  geological  faults,  and  many  of 
these  springs  are  still  hot,  or  at  least  warm,  showing  still  the 
waning  energies  of  once  hot  springs  in  regions  of  intense 
volcanic  activity.  Many  of  the  borax  "beds"  are  found  in  the 
playa  lakes  of  the  desert. 

Wherever  there  is  a  deposit  of  borate  of  soda,  carbonate 
of  soda,  or  salt  in  these  playas,  the  crust  formed  by  the  deposit 
continuously  increases  in  quantity.  The  borax  permeates  the 
soil  as  does  ordinary  alkali,  and  in  favorable  situations  a  crust 
forms  upon  the  surface.  After  this  has  been  removed,  a  new 
deposit  commences  to  form  by  the  solution  of  the  mineral- in 
percolating  waters,  and  its  rise  to  the  surface  by  capillary 
action  forms  a  crust  by  the  subsequent  evaporation  of  the 
boracic  waters.  After  five  or  six  years  a  new  crust  is  formed. 
This  action  of  dissolving  and  evaporation  is  repeated  for  ages 
until  nearly  pure  crystals  of  borax  are  formed. 

The  borax  fields  are  usually  very  spotted,  varying  greatly 
in  richness,  in  general  only  a  small  portion  of  a  bed  that 
measures  several  square  miles  in  area  being  profitable  to  work. 
The  carbonate  and  sulphate  of  soda  crusts  on  the  playas.  when 
mixed  with  sand,  look  very  much  like  the  borates  to  the 
untrained  eye,  but  the  difference  is  readily  detected  after 
experience  in  the  field. 

The  supply  of  the  crude  borates  is  too  great  to  attempt  any 
estimate.     It  is  sufficient  to  say  that  the  supply  is  abundant 


BORATES — [NYO   COUNTY.  45 

tor  a  century  to  come,  and  the  production  can  l>c-  increased 
indefinitely  and  without  difficulty  whenever  the  demand 
requires  it. 

29  INYO  COUNTY. 

In  connection  with  the  excitement  in  Nevada  there  was  a 
"boom"  in  borax  lands  in  [nyo  County  in  i  s 7 4 .  and  some  iv 
quarter-sections  of  land,  or  24,000  acres,  were  entered  in  the 
United  States  Land  Office  at  Independence.  Most  of  these 
locations  were  afterward  abandoned  as  not  rich  enough  to 
work. 

In  [883  work  was  begun  at  Furnace  Creek,  and  from  that 
time  on  the  county  was  a  steady  producer. 

While  the  statistics  of  the  county  have  not  as  a  rule  been 
kept  separate  from  the  other  counties  in  the  various  statistics 
published,  the  following  will  give  some  idea  of  the  amount  of 
annual  production,  which  ranks  next  to  that  of  San  Bernardino 
County.  In  1883,  [nyo  County  produced  20  tons;  and  in  [899, 
200  tons,  of  refined  borax. 

30  Bennett's  Wells. — These  wells  are  located  at  the  bottom  of 
Death  Valley,  near  the  lowest  depression,  which  is  427  feet 
below  sea-level. 

The  Eagle  borax  Company  at  one  time  owned  270  acres 
here,  and  had  a  factory  near  the  springs.  The  nature  of  these 
beds  is  that  of  the  other  beds  in  this  famous  valley,  which  are 
described  elsewhere  in  this  report,  consisting  wholly  of  surface 
incrustations  similar  to  those  of  Searles  Lake. 

The  borates  worked  here  consist  of  ulexite,  colemanite,  and 
pandermite;  associated  with  an  abundance  of  thenardite,  salt, 
and  trona.      No  work  has  been  done  for  a  number  of   years. 

31  Confidence. — Locations  cover  2400  acres.  Borates  in  com- 
mercial quantities  have  been  found  associated  with  nitrate  of 
soda,  sulphate  of  soda,  carbonate  of  soda,  and  other  salines 
in  the  niter  beds  belonging  to  the  American  Niter  Company. 
These  beds  are  located  in  the  southern  portion  of  Death  Valley, 
near  the  Narrows,  and  across  the  valley  from  the  old  mill  of 
the  Confidence  Gold  Mining  and  Milling  Company. 

As  these  beds  were  not  located  until  March,  1901,  but  little 
development  work  has  been  done  upon  them  up  to  this  date, 


46  THE   SALINE    DEPOSITS   OF   CALIFORNIA. 

but    preparations    have    been   made   by  the   owners    to  make 
extensive  explorations  of  the  beds  this  year  with  core  drills. 

32  Furnace  Creek. — The  work  done  here  from  1883  to  1899 
probably  advertised  the  borax  industry  more  than  all  of  the 
work  elsewhere  put  together.  The  pictures  of  immense 
wagons  drawn  by  a  string  of  mules  that  stretched  out  appar- 
ently for  half  a  mile  over  the  boundless  plain,  which  were 
scattered  all  over  America,  attracted  a  great  deal  of  curiosity, 
and  led  the  "New  York  Sun"  to  call  its  correspondent,  John  R. 
Spears,  back  from  Central  America  for  the  special  purpose  of 
writing  a  book  on  the  subject.  This  book,  "Death  Valley 
and  Other  Borate  Deserts  of  the  Pacific  Coast,"  published  in 
1 S92,  gives  much  matter  of  interest  to  the  curious  about  the 
early  history  of  borax  in  California. 

Furnace  Creek  has  shared  for  years  with  Yuma,  Arizona, 
the  distinction  of  being  the  hottest  place  on  the  continent,  but 
its  name  is  misleading.  Galena  ores  are  abundant  in  this 
district,  and  the  creek  received  its  name  from  the  fact  that  the 
early  prospectors  found  along  the  valley  the  remains  of  the 
adobe  furnaces  used  by  the  Mormons  to  make  lead  for  bullets 
in  1857.  The  creek  must  take  second  place  to  Yuma  for  heat, 
as  shown  by  the  statistics  of  the  U.  S.  Weather  Bureau,  which 
established  a  station  at  Death  Valley,  at  the  mouth  of  the 
creek,  in  1891,  and  kept  an  observer  there  for  a  season:  see 
"Climatology  of  Death  Valley,"  by  M.  W.  Harrington, 
U.S.  Weather  Bureau,  1892,  Washington,  D.  C. 

At  the  mouth  of  the  ~reek,  a  few  miles  south  of  the  spot 
where  the  Bennett  party  of  1850  is  supposed  to  have  perished, 
there  is  a  ranch  known  as  the  Greenland  Ranch,  with  some 
thirty  acres  of  cultivated  ground  where  alfalfa  is  raised  for  the 
benefit  of  the  Borax  Company's  stock.  All  kinds  of  fruit  and 
garden  truck  can  be  raised  here. 

The  bottom  of  Death  Valley  all  around  Township  27  North, 
Range  1  East,  San  Bernardino  Meridian,  is  covered  with  borax 
deposits,  the  principal  borates  being  ulexite,  colemanite,  and 
pandermite,  associated  with  an  abundance  of  thenardite,  salt, 
and  trona.  Southeast  of  the  mouth  of  Furnace  Creek,  and 
high  up  in  the  hills,  W.  T.  Coleman  and  F.  M.  Smith  found 
beds  of  borax,  rich  especially  in  the  "cotton  ball"  variety. 
These  beds  are  1500  feet  above  the  valley  proper. 

The    G reen laud    Salt    and    Borax    Company    has    been   the 


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48  THE   SALINE   DEPOSITS   OF   CALIFORNIA. 

principal  producer.  In  order  to  get  its  products  to  market 
over  deep  desert  sands,  and  across  mountain  ranges  where  the 
grade  for  40  miles  averaged  over  100  feet  per  mile,  and  where 
water  springs  were  30  or  40  miles  apart,  a  special  wagon  had 
to  be  invented.  These  wagons  are  fully  described  in  Spears's 
book,  but  a  few  points  may  be  of  interest.  The  hind  wheels 
were  7  feet  high,  the  tires  were  8  inches  wide  and  an  inch 
thick.  Each  wagon  weighed  empty  7,800  pounds,  or  £5,600 
pounds  for  the  two,  as  two  wagons  were  fastened  together 
"trail  fashion."  The  load  for  the  two  wagons  was  from 
4=;,ooo  to  46,000  pounds  of  borax,.in  addition  to  water  and 
feed  for  men.  The  teams  consisted  of  eighteen  mules  and  two 
horses,  driven  by  "jerk  line."  Wheeled  water  tanks  of  500 
gallons  were  towed  behind  the  wagons.  In  this  way  the 
desert  was  conquered  and  borax  conveyed  from  the  north  end 
of  Death  Valley  to  Mojave,  a  distance  of  165  miles,  by  way 
of  Bennett's  Wells,  Windy  Cap.  and  Granite  Wells. 

This  property  is  now  owned  by  the  Borax  Company  Ltd. 

A  considerable  force  of  men  were  busy  during  last  winter, 
1901-02,  in  doing  assessment  work,  making  improvements 
upon  the  claims,  and  locating  more-land. 

33  Monte  Blanco. — This  is  a  wedge-shaped  peak  about  1000 
feet  high,  that  stands  on  the  south  side  of  Furnace  Creek,  at 
the  north  end  of  the  Funeral  range.  The  top  and  sides  are 
covered  with  borax  in  the  form  of  a  white  sandy  powder, 
several  feet  thick,  associated  with  carbonate  and  sulphate  of 
soda.  A  ledge  of  colemanite  has  been  discovered  in  the 
vicinity. 

34  Owens  Lake. — Boric  acid  in  small  quantities  has  been  found 
in  the  saline  waters  of  this  lake,  which  is  fully  described  else- 
where in  this  report. 

35  Resting  Springs.— Resting  Springs  is  a  well-known  stopping- 
place  for  all  who  travel  the  desert.  Mr.  Philander  Lee  has 
made  it  his  home  for  many  years,  and  his  ranch,  with  its  shade 
trees,  fruits,  garden,  and  alfalfa  fields,  shows  what  can  be  done 
upon  the  desert  wherever  there  is  water  witli  which  to  irrigate. 
North  of  these  springs  the  valley  of  the  Amargosa  River 
widens  out  into  a  playa  lake  some  18  miles  long  by  3  or  4 
miles  wide.  Near  the  south  end  of  this  "dry  lake"  and  about 
6  miles  west  of   Resting  Springs  the  Amargosa  Mining  Com- 


BORATES — INVii   COUNTY.  4(.i 

pany  owns  several  hundred  acres  of  borax  land,  having  selected 
the  best  portion  of  the  dry  lake.  Its  lands  are  in  Township 
21  North.  Range  6  East,  S.  B.  M.  The  beds  arc  of  the  usual 
"play a"  character,  and  have  for  a  cover  a  thin,  dry  crust  of 
carbonate  of  soda  mixed  with  dust  from  sandstorms. 

The  borax  here  is  of  good  quality  and  requires  little  treatment. 

This  property  also  belongs  to  the  Borax  Company  Ltd.. 
who  had  a  force  of  men  at  work  in  the  fall  of  1901  doing 
assessment  work.  The  vats  and  works  of  the  old  Amargosa 
Mining  Company  are  primitive  in  design  and  have  not  been 
used  for  a  number  of  5  ears. 

36  Saline  Valley. — Situated  about  18  miles  north  of  Keeler. 
The  Conn  &  Trudo  Borax  Company  owns  several  hundred 
acres  in  this  valley,  and  had  small  works  for  handling  the 
product  of  the  playa  deposits.  The  crust  containing  borax  on 
the  company's  land  is  from  6  inches  to  2  feet  thick,  and  in 
some  spots  carries  as  high  as  90  per  cent  of  borax. 

37  Salt  Wells  Valley. — This  is  the  northern  extension  in  Inyo 
County  of  the  playa  lake  known  as  Searles,  or  Borax,  Lake  in 
San  Bernardino  County.  Some  1700  acres  were  located  in  this 
valley,  for  borax,  in  1874.  The  Salt  Wells  Borax  Company  of 
Independence  was  the  principal  worker  here,  but  no  work 
beyond  assessment  work  has  been  done  for  a  number  of  years. 
On  this  lake  the  crust  of  sodium  sulphate  is  from  3  to  10 
inches  thick,  excepting  on  the  portion  covered  by  a  borax 
crust.  An  analysis  of  the  borax  crust,  from  a  tract  of  about 
100  acres,  gives  the  following: 

Insoluble r  .40 

Water 44.80 

Sodium  chloride 16.9S 

Boric  acid    36.82 


38 


[OO.i  «> 


Tecopah. — The  Tecopah  Mining  District  lies  at  the  head  of 
Willow  Creek  in  about  Township  20  North,  Range  9  East, 
S.  B.  M.  (unsurveyed);  just  north  of  the  San  Bernardino 
County  line.  There  is  a  small  lead  smelter  situated  on  Willow 
Creek,  and  lead  and  gold  mining  is  active  in  the  range  of  moun- 
tains that  extends  northwest  to  the  Cxunsite  mine,  near  Resting 
Springs.  The  playa  deposits  begin  near  the  smelter  and 
extend  east  to  the  top  of  the  low  divide  near  Tule  Springs. 
4— Bri..  24 


50  THE   SALINE    DEPOSITS   OF   CALIFORNIA. 

The  American  Niter  Company  owns  about  2500  acres  of  land, 
some  portions  of  which  are  rich  in  borax.  The  district  is 
similar  in  its  chemical  and  geological  characteristics  to  the 
borax  beds  around  Resting  Springs. 

39  Upper  and  Lower  Canon  Beds. — The  niter  beds  of  the 
American  Niter  Company  located  in  the  canon  of  the  Amar- 
gosa  River,  where  it  crosses  the  south  boundary  of  Inyo 
County,  contain  considerable  quantities  of  borates,  associated 
with  nitrate  of  soda,  etc.  These  beds  are  described  under  the 
head  of  Nitrates. 

KERN  COUNTY. 

40  Buckhorn  Spring's. — Travelers  over  the  Santa  Fe  will  proba- 
bly remember  riding  for  some  8  miles  across  a  large  dry 
lake-bed  about  20  miles  east  of  Mojave.  At  the  south  end  of 
this  playa  lake  are  the  Buckhorn  Springs,  where  there  are 
considerable  deposits  of  borates  mixed  with  salt  and  other 
salines.  The  beds  have  not  been  developed.  The  location  is 
in  Township  9  North,  Range  9  West,  S.  B.  M. 

41  China  Lake. — This  playa  lake  is  located  partially  in  San 
Bernardino  County,  the  county  line  passing  through  the  playa 
It  is  located  in  Ranges  40  and  41  Hast,  Township  25  South, 
M.  I).  M.  It  was  once  a  part  of  Searles  Lake,  being  really  a 
pool  or  depression  in  the  southwest  portion  of  that  lake  in 
recent  geological  times.  The  deposits  are  similar  to  those  of 
Searles  Lake.     No  work  has  been  done  upon  these  beds. 

42  Indian  Springs. — These  beds  lie  in  the  west  side  of  the  Salt 
Wells  Valley,  close  to  the  foot  of  the  main  range.  Borax  is 
present,  mixed  with  salt,  soda,  and  other  salines;  but  the  beds 
have  never  been  exploited.  They  are  situated  in  Township 
26  South,  Range  38  East,  M.  D.  M. 

43  Kane  Springs. — These  springs  are  also  known  as  the  Mes- 
quite,  Cane  Springs,  and  Desert  Springs,  and  are  located  in 
Township  30  South,  Range  38  East,  M.  D.  M. 

Borate  of  lime  (ulexite)  was  discovered  in  the  playa  lake, 
around  which  these  springs  are  located,  in  February,  1873. 
The  lake  is  about  9  miles  long  by  3  miles  wide.  The  rich 
borate  "spots"  cover  from  one   to  four  acres.     The  deposits 


BORATES — LAKH    COUNTY.  51 

were  discovered  by  II.  J.  Lent,  who  produced  some  borax  of 
excellent  quality  here  in  the  early  days;  but  the  beds  have 
lain  idle  for  many  years. 

44  EI  Paso  Wells. — Borates  in  small  quantities  are  reported  as 
existing  near  these  wells  in  Township  28  South,  Ran-.-  |.o  East, 
M.  I).  M. 

LAKE  COUNTY. 

I">  Borax  Lake. — 1 11  is'<4,  the  industry  of  producing  borax  in 
the  United  States  was  started  here  with  a  yield  of  24,304 
pounds,  worth  39  cents  per  pound.  The  lake  was  discovered 
in  September,  1856,  by  Dr.  John  A.  Veatch.  From  1864  to 
[868,  the  little  lake  yielded  390  tons  of  refined  borax,  worth 
then  5414,030,  the  price  dropping  from  39  cents  per  pound  to 
35  cents.  Borax  Lake  is  also  called  Alkali  Lake  and  Lake 
Kaysa  in  the  earlier  reports.  It  is  situated  in  the  angle  of  the 
two  eastern  prongs  of  Clear  Lake,  near  a  low  volcanic  ridge 
that  stretches  across  the  cape,  forming  a  triangular  valley.  In 
1863  the  lake  measured  4000  feet  long,  by  [800  feet  wide,  and 
was  3  feet  deep  in  the  winter  time;  but  in  the  summer  it 
shrinks  to  a  lake  of  50  or  60  acres,  with  but  little  water.  At 
the  bottom  of  the  lake  was  a  layer  of  soapy  mud,  some  4  feet 
thick,  underlaid  with  blue  clay.  The  soapy  and  gelatinous 
mud  was  filled  with  prismatic  crystals  of  pure  borax,  ranging 
in  size  from  the  minute  to  those  that  weighed  several  pounds. 
The  waters  of  the  lake,  as  analyzed  by  Dr.  Win.  O.  Avers,  con- 
tained the  following  : 


'.-. 


Sodium  carbonate .  .      61.8 

Sodium  chloride 20.4 

Sodium  biborate 17.8 


I'"  1.'  1 


Another  analyst  states  that  the  water  contained  2401.56 
grains  per  gallon  of  solid  matter,  of  which  538.08  grains  repre- 
sented crystallized  borax.  The  crystals  of  borax  were  obtained 
from  the  mud  by  means  of  a  small  coffer-dam  made  of  boiler 
iron,  the  mud  taken  out  being  washed  in  rude  sluices  in  true 
placer  style,  the  crystals  of  borax  being  caught  on  the  riffles. 
An  attempt  was  made  to  evaporate  the  waters  of  the  lagoon, 
after  the  supply  from  the  mud  ran  short,  but  this  was  spoiled 
by  the  overflow  of  an  uncontrollable  artesian  well.     The  borax 


52  THE   SALINE   DEPOSITS   OF   CALIFORNIA. 

made  at  this  place  was  remarkably  pure,  as  shown  by  the 
following  analysis  made  in  Edinburgh,  Scotland,  in  1X65: 

Kiborate  of  soda  (borax),  pure  and  dry.  .    54.39/   99-94,  com- 

Water  crystallization 45-55'i    111  on  borax 

Sulphate  of  sodium 00.06 

Chloride  of  sodium traces 

Insoluble  matter traces 

100.00 
This  natural  borax,  99.94  per  cent  pure,  has  not  been  equaled 
in  any  subsequent  discoveries  in  any  country.  It  is  said  that 
there  remains  at  this  place,  and  at  Lake  Hachinhama,  on  the 
other  side  of  Clear  Lake,  a  large  amount  of  workable  borax 
that  may  be  utilized  some  day.  The  whole  region  around  the 
lake  bears  the  marks  of  recent  volcanic  activity,  explaining  the 
presence  of  the  borax. 

46  Lake  Hachinhama. — This  lake  is  on  the  south  side  of  Clear 
Lake,  about  4  miles  west  of  Borax  Lake.  It  was  an  oval- 
shaped  lagoon  of  about  300  acres.  According  to  the  analysis 
of  Dr.  Wm.  O.  Ayers  its  waters  contained  the  following: 

Sodium  carbonate 75.4 

Sodium  chloride 8.3 

Sodium  biborate 16.3 

100. o 

No  crystals  were  found  in  the  mud  here  as  at  Borax  Lake. 
This  lake  was  worked  only  in  1872,  when  it  produced  140 
tons,  worth  then  $89,600. 

The  discoveries  of  the  "marsh"  deposits  of  the  deserts  put 
an  end  to  the  production  in  Lake  County. 

47  Springs. — The  presence  of  borax,  boric  acid,  or  borates,  has 
been  detected  in  the  waters  of  the  following  springs,  but  not 
in  commercial  quantities: 

Carbonated  Soda  Springs. — Described  only  as  8  miles 
from  Clear  Lake. 

Hough  Springs. 

Howard  Springs. 

Iodine  Springs. — On  a  branch  of  Stony  Creek,  near  the 
entrance  to  Grizzly  Canon;  said  to  be  very  rich  in  iodine  and 
bromide,  and  carrying  small  amounts  of  boric  acid. 


BORIC  ACID— DAGGETT,  SAN  BERNARDINO  COUNTY. 


HORIC  ACM)  CRYSTALLIZING  VATS  -HUMPHRIES'S  WORKS,  DAGGETT, 
SAX  BERNARDINO  COUNTY. 


54  Tin:  sai.ink  deposits  ok  California. 

Hot  Borate  Spring. — On  the  edge  of  Clear  Lake,  near 
the  sulphur  bank  mentioned  in  the  Geology  of  California, 
Vol.  I.  An  analysis  by  Mr.  Moore  shows  the  following  in 
grains  per  gallon: 

Sodium  chloride S4.62 

Sodium  bicarbonate 76.96 

Ammonium  bicarbonate 107.76 

Sodium  biborate 103.29 

Alumina 36.37 

.Silica 8.23 

Organic  matter 65.77 

483.00 
The  water  also   contains  traces  of   chloride  of    potassium, 
iodine,  and  sulphate  of  calcium. 

Saratoga  Springs. 

SiEGLER  Springs. — These  are  in  a  canon  about  18  miles 
east  of  Clear  Lake.  There  are  three  hot  springs  and  several 
cold  ones,  the  temperature  of  the  hot  springs  being  about  2000  F. 
and  that  of  the  cold  ones  about  6o°  F.  An  efflorescence  of 
boric  acid  is  found  around  the  springs;  while  the  water  holds 
in  solution  biborate,  chloride,  and  sulphate  of  soda.  Free 
hydrosulphurous  acid  is  abundant,  which  accounts  for  the 
decomposition  of  the  borates  of  the  water  and  the  depositing 
of  the  boric  acid  on  the  soil.  The  Indian  name  of  the  place  is 
Conotok,  on  account  of  the  white  appearance  of  the  ground. 

Witter  Springs. 

There  is  no  doubt  but  that  a  careful  study  of  the  springs 
would  reveal  the  presence  of  boric  acid  in  many  besides  those 
mentioned  here. 

48  RIVERSIDE  AND  SAN  DIEGO  COUNTIES. 

A  large  portion  of  the  eastern  ends  of  these  counties  is 
covered  by  the  Colorado  Desert,  which  was  once  the  bottom  of 
the  ancient  lake  now  known  as  Lake  Le  Conte.  Salton  Sea, 
the  lowest  pool  of  this  old  geological  lake,  is  crossed  by  the 
line  that  is  the  boundary  between  the  two  counties.  While 
no  borax  is  being  worked  in  these  counties,  its  presence  is 
known  to  prospectors  in  a  number  of  places  in  the  Colorado 
Desert. 

Borate  of  lime  has  been  found  in  the  foothills  of  the  San 
Bernardino  range  northeast  of  Salton  Sea  in  Riverside  County; 


BORATES — SAN    BERNARDINO   COUNTY.  55 

and  boric  acid  exists  in  a  number  of  springs  on  the  San  Felipe 
and  Carizzo  creeks  in  San  Diego  County.  Dr.  Veatch,  in  his 
search  for  borax  in  the  earlj  days,  found  boric  acid  in  some 
quantity  in  the  Mud  Volcanoes  and  on  Carizzo  Creek.  It  has 
also  been  discovered  at  Agua  Caliente,  on  Warner's  Ranch. 
The  borders  of  this  <>1<1  lake-  otter  an  excellent  and  promising 
field  for  the  prospector  for  borates,  and  lime  borates  should  be 
especially  looked  for.  Borax  associated  with  sa.lt,  and  the 
carbonates  and  sulphates  of  soda  are  found  in  many  of  the 
plava  lakes  of  the  Colorado  Desert.  Xo  locations  for  borax  or 
borates  have  been  made  in  this  district. 

SAN   BERNARDINO  COUNTY. 

49         Amargosa   River  Bed.     The   Amargosa,  or   bitter.   River  is 
fed  in  many  places  along  it^  course  by  ancient  hot  springs,  and 

it  takes  up  a  certain  amount  of  saline  matter  from  the  desert 
through  which  it  flows,  for  this  desert  is  but  a  portion  of  the 
bottom  of  old  bake  Anbury.  On  emerging  from  a  canon  and 
spreading  out  over  the  flat  bottom  of  a  valley  it  soon  evaporates) 
or  sinks,  so  that  the  saline  matter  which  is  ever  leaching  from 
its  upper  courses  is  being  deposited  along  its  lower  stretches. 
The  borax  permeates  the  soil,  and  where  the  local  conditions 
are  favorable  it  forms  a  crust  upon  the  surface.  These  crusts 
may  be  removed  by  local  storms,  or  removed  and  sent  to  market 
by  some  company;  but  in  either  case  a  new  deposit  commences 
to  form  from  the  material  in  the  percolating  waters  as  it  rises 
to  the  surface  by  capillary  action.  In  some  places  this  double 
action  of  dissolving  and  evaporation  has  been  repeated  until 
nearly  pure  crystals  of  borax  have  been  formed. 

The  Amargosa  River  has  never  been  known  since  1850  to 
carry  enough  water  to  enable  it  to  reach  the  lowest  depression 
of  Death  Valley,  and  in  its  heaviest  floods  it  rarely  goes  more 
than  four  or  five  miles  below  Saratoga  Springs. 

The  enormous  evaporation  in  a  region  where  the  average 
humidity  is  less  than  2  per  cent  is  difficult  to  realize,  and 
accounts  for  the  beds,  patches,  and  spots  of  borax  that  may  be 
found  all  along  the  course  of  this  stream  from  Ash  Meadows, 
where  it  leaves  Nevada,  to  Death  Valley. 

While  the  rate  of  evaporation  has  not  been  definitely  ascer- 
tained by  a  series  of  tests,  it  is  enormous  when  compared  with 
other  regions.     For  example,  experiments  at  Rochester,  New 


56  THK    SAI.INF    IH'.I'OSITS    OF    CALIFORNIA. 

York,  showed  5 '  _•  inches  per  month  at  the  Mount  Hope  reser- 
voir, with  the  thermometer  standing  at  700  in  the  shade,  the 
humidity  in  the  air  being  67  per  cent.  In  Tulare  County,  in 
this  State,  the  average  taken  in  August  showed  10  inches  for 
the  month.  In  the  irrigation  districts  of  India,  %  inch  per 
day,  or  15  inches  per  month,  has  been  measured  at  reservoirs. 
It  has  been  the  personal  experience  of  some  of  my  party  that 
the  thermometer  has  stood  at  1200  to  1300  F.  all  night  long  at 
Saratoga  Springs  in  the  month  of  July,  and  that  in  the  latter 
part  of  June  the  rocks  became  unbearably  hot.  What  the 
temperature  of  the  Amargosa  Valley  is  in  the  daytime  in  mid- 
summer is  not  known,  as  "desert  men"  keep  in  the  shade  then, 
and  only  attempt  to  cross  the  valley  at  night,  if  they  are 
unfortunate  enough  to  be  in  the  country  at  that  season.  Some 
tests  at  the  Amargosa  borax  works  in  Inyo  County,  and  at 
Saline  Valley,  have  shown  as  high  as  8  feet  of  evaporation  in 
a  month.  Given,  then,  this  exceptional  heat  in  summer,  a 
porous  river  bottom,  an  almost  absolutely  dry  air,  and  it  is 
evident  that  the  river  is  ever  picking  up  the  salines  in  one 
portion  of  its  winter  course  only  to  deposit  them  again  lower 
down. 

The  borax  and  niter  deposits  at  Resting  Springs,  Tecopah, 
Upper  and  Lower  Canon  Beds,  Salt  Springs,  Saratoga,  Owl, 
Round  Mountain,  Valley,  Confidence,  Bennett's  Wells,  Monte 
Blanco,  and  Furnace  Creek  are  all  in  the  watershed  of  this 
river  which  sinks  in  Death  Valley. 

50  Calico  District. — The  Calico  borax  district,  lying  north  and 
northeast  of  Daggett,  has  become  famous  at  home  and  abroad 
for  its  borate  deposits.  Soon  after  the  biborate  of  soda,  or 
common  borax,  had  been  found  there,  a  new  mineral  was  dis- 
covered among  the  brightly  colored  strata  that  have  given 
name  to  the  district.  This  mineral  was  snowy  white,  and 
composed  of  radiating  crystals  of  singular  beauty.  To  the 
surprise  of  those  who  analyzed  it,  the  mineral  proved  to  be  a 
compound  of  boric  acid  and  lime.  It  was  named  after  W.  T. 
Coleman,  who  was  associated  with  F.  M.  Smith  in  the  borax 
industry  at  the  time  of  the  discovery.  To  give  a  full  descrip- 
tion of  this  rich  district  would  require  a  large  volume,  and  it  is 
only  possible,  within  the  limits  of  this  bulletin,  to  give  some  of 
the  salient  points  as  a  guide  to  its  more  thorough  study  later 
on.     The    colemanite   is   found    in    two    veins,    about   40   feet 


HKIS1I    RACKS   POR   CKVSTAI.I.IZINC  BORIC   ACID  ON      HARTLKTT   WORKS, 
DAGGETT,  SAN  BERNARDINO  COUNTY. 


BOILING  TANKS -IJARTI.K  ITS  BORIC  ACID  WORKS.   DAGGETT,  SAN 

BERNARDINO  COUNTY. 


58  THE    SAI.IXK    DKI'OSITS    ()!•    CALIFORNIA. 

apart,  that  are  interbedded  with  sandstones  and  sandy  clays,  on 
an  anticlinal  whose  apex  has  been  eroded  away.  On  one  side 
of  the  range  the  beds  dip  to  the  north  and  on  the  other  side 
they  dip  to  the  south;  but  both  were  one  bed  in  the  beginning. 
The  portion  mined  is  from  7  to  10  feet  thick,  and  the  mineral 
is  stoped  out  the  same  as  other  ores;  most  of  the  working 
being  through  inclines. 

The  beds  vary  in  color  from  red  to  green  and  gray,  and  have 
somewhat  the  appearance  of  indurated  mud.  Some  of  the  rock 
is  bluish-black  in  color,  and  resembles  fine-grained  blue  lime- 
stone. Toward  the  western  ends,  the  borate  of  lime  is  mixed 
with  sand,  gypsum,  clays,  and  other  sediments.  The  cole- 
manite  occurs  in  the  beds  in  shoots,  and  the  deposits  are  quite 
irregular  and  pockety.  The  colemanite  carries  from  15  to  20 
per  cent  of  anhydrous  boric  acid. 

The  borax  "mine"  occurs  as  a  bedded  vein  between  sedi- 
mentary strata  composed  of  sandstone  and  sandy  clays,  that 
form  a  succession  of  heavily-bedded  water  deposits,  as  well  as 
shallow,  thin-bedded  shales  and  sands;  the  total  series  being 
about  1000  feet  thick. 

Underlying  the  sediments  are  the  tufas;  and  beneath  them 
the  liparite  that  underlies  the  entire  region.  There  is  no 
metamorphism  of  the  sedimentary  strata  noticeable  in  the 
region  of  the  borates.  It  is  evident  that  these  beds  were 
deposited  at  the  bottom  of  the  southern  portion  of  an  ancient 
ocean;  that,  in  the  Tertiary  times,  there  was  a  local  uplift  that 
broke  the  bowl-shaped  bed  in  two,  leaving  the  strata  tipping 
each  way  from  the  uplift.  While  these  beds  are  of  vast  com- 
mercial importance  to-day,  geologically  considered,  they  are 
but  local  incidents  in  the  destruction  of  the  bed  of  Lake 
Anbury. 

The  origin  of  such  beds  is  given  in  the  general  description 
of  Lake  Aubury.  As  the  outcrops  of  the  borates  extend  along 
nearly  10  miles  of  the  district,  it  is  evident  that  these  mines  will 
be  worked  for  decades  to  come. 

The  Pacific  Coast  Borax  Co. — This  company  built  a  crush- 
ing and  drying  plant  at  Marion,  about  4  miles  north  of 
Daggett,  and  a  railroad  about  10  miles  long  connecting 
Daggett,  Marion,  and  its  colemanite  mines  at  Calico.  This 
property  belongs  now  to  the  Borax  Consolidated  Ltd..  which 
has  absorbed  most  of  the  properties  of  this  district,  and  which 


BORATES — SAN    BERNARDINO    COUNTY.  59 

ships  the  crude  ores,  after  crushing  and  drying,  to  its  large 
works  at  Bayonne,  New  Jersey.  (These  works  are  described 
elsewhere  under  the  head  of  "  Processes.") 

A.s  permission  to  go  down  into  the  mines  was  not  granted 
by  the  superintendent,  no  description  of  the  present  develop- 
ment can  be  given. 

The  (  )\vens  shaft  was,  several  years  ago,  over  200  feet  dee]), 
and  cut  a  bed  of  eolenianite  at  an  angle  of  70  degrees.  This 
bed  was  reported  as  from  40  to  50  feet  thick,  lying  in  an  uplift 
whose  axis  is  parallel  with  those  of  the  Calico  range. 

The  Stephens  &  Greer  mine  is  on  the  south  side  of  the 
range  on  a  bed,  or  vein,  about  40  feet  thick,  which  can  be 
traced  for  over  1000  feet  in  length. 

51  The  Blumenberg  Mine.— Is  about  two  miles  south  of  the 
Pacific  mine,  and  is  on  a  lied  reported  as  50  feet  thick.  This 
is  an  independent  company  which  is  pushing  the  development 
of  its  property,  and  expects  to  erect  a  plant  this  year. 

52  The  Western  Mineral  Co.— Its  works  are  located  a  short 
distance  west  of  Marion,  on  the  flat.  Their  character  is  well 
shown  in  the  accompanying  photographs. 

The  works  consist  of  tanks  for  boiling  the  crude  borates 
with  sulphur,  and  vats  for  evaporating  the  solutions  and 
crystallizing  the  boric  acid.  W.  T.  Bartlett,  the  owner  and 
manager,  is  one  of  the  pioneers  in  this  district  in  the  manu- 
facture of  boric  acid,  and  it  is  due  to  his  ability  and  indomitable 
perseverance  that  the  problems  connected  with  the  working 
of  low-grade  borax  muds  have  been  solved.  The  ore  used  at 
these  works  is  a  low-grade  bluish-black,  gray  or  red  clayish 
mud  that  looks  something  like  a  fine-grained  shale  or  sand- 
stone. It  is  evidently  a  portion  of  heavily-bedded  deep- 
water  deposits,  carrying  from  7  to  20  per  cent  boric  acid. 
These  beds  have  been  mined  for  from  40  to  60  feet  in  width 
without  reaching  their  limits,  and  are  known  to  extend  down- 
ward for  over  200  feet  in  depth.  In  all  probability,  they  will 
be  found  extending  down  below  the  limits  of  profitable  extrac- 
tion, the  quantity  being  practically  unlimited. 

One  of  the  interesting  features  of  the  Bartlett  works  is  the 
brush  piles  for  crystallizing  the  boric  acid,  the  solution  being 
pumped  to  the  top  of  the  piles.  The  photograph  is  self 
explanatory.     The  capacity  of  the  works  is  about  30  tons  of 


60  THE   SALINE    DEPOSITS   OF   CALIFORNIA. 

boric  acid  per  month.     This  property  is  not  controlled  by  the 
Borax  Consolidated  Ltd. 

53  The  Columbia  Mining:  and  Chemical  Co. — Its  works  are 
located  in  the  town  of  Daggett  and  are  managed  by  Dr.  F. 
Howard  Humphries.  The  mines  are  located  about  six  miles 
northwest  of  town. 

The  plant  consists  of  boiling  tanks,  filter  press,  and  evapo- 
rating and  crystallizing  tanks.  (See  photographs.)  The  ore 
is  similar  to  that  used  by  the  Bartlett  works.  At  the  mine  the 
shaft  is  run  down  about  200  feet,  and  cross-cuts  have  been 
made  for  over  100  feet  without  reaching  the  walls.  The 
upturned  edge  of  the  bed  has  been  traced  for  over  two  miles. 
The  general  dip  is  about  70  degrees  to  the  north.  Like  the 
Bartlett  ores,  they  are  low-grade  borates  of  lime,  running  from 
7  to  20  per  cent  boric  acid.  The  methods  used  are  mentioned 
under  the  head  of  "  Processes." 

The  boric  acid  made  by  both  Humphries  and  Bartlett  is 
exceptionally  pure.  The  capacity  of  the  works  is  about  30  tons 
of  boric  acid  per  month. 

54  The  Oasis  Mining  and  Oil  Co. — Of  Barstow,  California,  is 
sinking  a  shaft  011  its  borax  claims  about  one  and  a  half  miles 
northwest  of  Marion,  expecting  to  reach  the  bedded  deposits 
below. 

55  Cave  Spring's. — Borax  deposits,  consisting  of  borate  of  lime 
associated  with  carbonate  of  soda,  salt,  and  sulphate  of  soda, 
have  been  recently  located  southeast  of  Cave  Springs,  near  the 
Daggett  road,  but  no  development  work  has  been  done.  It  is 
reported  that  borate  "mud  beds"  similar  to  those  near  Daggett 
have  also  been  discovered  in  this  district,  which  lies  along  the 
south  Hank  of  the  Avawatz  Mountains. 

56  China  Lake. — This  playa  lake  lies  partly  in  this  county 
and  partly  in  Kern  County.      (See  "Kern  County.") 

57  Coyote  Holes,  or  "Willow  Springs  Lake. — The  playa  lake 
that  lies  about  twenty  miles  northeast  of  Daggett  is  locally 
known  as  Coyote  Holes,  or  Willow  Springs,  from  the  two 
springs  on  its  north  and  south  edges.  It  is  situated  in  Town- 
ship n  North,  Range  2  East,  S.  B.  M.  At  Coyote  Holes 
there  is  a  "marsh"  of  about  300  acres  that  is  surrounded  by  a 
crust   of  borax.     The   marsh   itself   is  mainly  a   carbonate  of 


■^.^^i 

run; 

mm*.  — 

-- 

^«^j           '«2  Ira    P^-"*  .'•*." 

HOKAX  WORKS,  SAX  BERNARDINO  COUNTY. 


<j^^M  ^tft 

1 

— ^_JBFV 

^^^^^^^ 

^^s^^^fe  "      - 

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r^^S^lr^--*^.— - 

i5r>- 

BORAX  WORKS,  SAX  BERNARDINO  COUNTY. 


62  THE   SALINE    DEPOSITS   OF   CALIFORNIA. 

soda  bed.     The  borax  is  mainly  ulexite  or  "cotton  ball"  borax, 
and  is  undeveloped. 

58  Lone  Star. — Beds  of  eolemanite  have  been  recently  discov- 
ered in  the  south  flank  of  the  Lone  Star  range,  almost  directly 
north  of  Leach's  Spring,  in  Township  18  North,  Range  2 
Last,  vS.  B.  M.  These  beds  are  from  3  to  5  feet  thick,  and 
outcrop  for  intervals  for  a  distance  of  about  two  miles. 

59  Lone  Willow. — Outcrops  of  eolemanite  similar  to  those  of 
Lone  Star  have  been  discovered  this  spring  a  few  miles  west  of 
the  Lone  Willow  Springs,  in  the  south  flank  of  Brown's 
Mountain.  No  development  work  has  yet  been  done  upon 
them. 

60  Lower  Canon  Beds. — In  the  alternating  strata  of  sedimen- 
tary beds  in  the  Lower  Canon  niter  beds,  situated  in  the  canon 
of  the  Amargosa  River,  evidence  of  the  presence  of  borates  has 
been  found.  Colemanite  and  ulexite  have  both  been  found  as 
"float,"  and  an  examination  of  the  numerous  strata  will  in  all 
probability  show  the  existence  of  beds  of  commercial  value. 

61  Mojave  Sink. — The  sink  of  the  Mojave  River  is  situated  in 
Townships  11  to  13  North,  Ranges  8  and  9  Last,  S.  B.  M. 
Borax  has  been  found  in  the  playa  layers  of  this  lake,  that  is 
locally  known  as  Soda  Lake.  It  is  associated  with  the  car- 
bonates and  sulphate  of  soda,  but  no  attempt  has  been  made 
to  explore  the  deposits  to  see  if  the  borax  exists  in  commercial 
quantities.  Around  Borax  and  Barrel  Springs  the  borax  is  too 
spotted  and  in  too  small  quantities  to  be  of  value.  Borings 
might  give  waters  carrying  values. 

62  Owl  Spring's. — The  Owl  Springs,  or  Owl  Holes,  are  located 
in  Township  18  North,  Range  3  East,  S.  B.  M.  Priceite  and 
eolemanite  both  occur  in  large  quantities  at  the  niter  beds  of 
this  district,  associated  with  carbonate  and  sulphate  of  soda. 
Description  of  these  beds  is  given   under  the  head  of  "Niter." 

63  Palma  Lake. — Borax  mixed  with  natural  soda  has  recently 
been  discovered  six  miles  from  Twenty-nine  Palms.  The 
deposits  cover  large  portions  of  Sections  56,  29,  31,  and  32, 
in  Township  9  East,  Range  2  North,  S.  B.  M.  The  deposits 
are  similar  in  many  respects  to  the  well-known  Searles  Lake. 
The  property  is  being  opened  up  by  Messrs.  Johnson  & 
Williams,  of  Riverside. 


BORATES — SAN    BERNARDINO   COUNTY. 

64  Pilot  Beds. —  Borate  deposits  have  been  found  recently  at  the 
south  end  of  the  Slate  range,  southeast  of  Searles  Lake.  These 
deposits   are  mainly  borate  of   lime  in  strata  underlying  the 

niter  beds.  No  work  has  as  yet  been  done  to  show  their  extent 
and  value.  The  property  is  in  the  hands  of  W.  R.  Kales,  of 
Los  Angeles. 

65  Salt  Springs. — These  are  located  in  Township  18  North. 
Range  7  East,  S.  1!.  M.,  on  the  south  fork  of  Amargosa  River. 
They  form  here  a  plava  lake  deposit  of  several  hundred  acres, 
similar  to  those  already  described  at  Coyote  Holes,  Owl 
Springs,  and  elsewhere. 

•  ')•)         Saratoga    Beds. — These    beds    are    located  in    Township   [8 
North.  Range  5  East,  S.  1!.  M.     They  occupy  the  flats  around 
S  iratoga  Springs,  at  the  foot  of  Funeral  range,  in  the  bottom 
of  the  south  end  of  Death  Valley.     Claims  covering  5600  acres 
have  been  made  on  this  portion  of  the  bed  of  the  ancient  lake. 
The  borax  occurs  around  the  springs  and  in  the  flat  as  a  crust 
mixed  with  soda  compounds.     These  crusts  are  from   1   to  3 
feet    deep,   the    richest   borates  being   found    in    "pools"    and 
"basins"  varying  from  a  few  feet  to  several  acres  in  extent, 
making  the  beds,  as  a  wdiole,  quite  spotted,  as  all  of  the  borax 
deposits  are.     Rich  portions  are  also  found  along  the  shallow 
river  channels  that  wind  everywhere  through  the  flats.     Sam- 
ples taken  have  varied  from  7  to  40  per  cent  of  borax;  from  10 
to  60  per  cent  of  sulphate  of  soda;  from  a  trace  to  5  per  cent 
of  carbonate  of  soda;  from  8  to  25  percent  of  chloride  of  soda: 
and    from    10  to  50   per  cent   of    insoluble   matter.     There   is 
present  also  more  or  less  magnesia,  and  some  iodine.     Traces 
of  boric  acid  were  found  in  the  Saratoga   Springs,  which  are 
warm   springs  that  issue  with  considerable  force  and  in  large 
volume  from  beneath  the  lavas.     The  overflow  of  these  springs 
forms  lakes  that  cover  the  greater  portion  of  a  section.     It  is 
probable  that  boring  will  reveal  the  presence  of  beds  of  borates, 
and  waters  rich  in  borax. 

Besides  in  the  beds  around  the  springs,  borax  in  considerable 
quantities  has  been  found  in  the  niter  fields  three  miles  south, 
along  the  flank  of  the  Avawatz  range,  and  is  described  under 
the  head  of  "Niter." 

67  Searles  Borax  Lake. — This  deposit  has  figured  on  many 
maps  under  the  names  of  "Dry  Lake,"  "  Alkali  Flat,"  "Salt 
Bed,"  "Borax   Marsh,"  "Searles  Lake,"  etc.     It  is  located  near 


64  THE   SALINE    DEPOSITS   OE   CALIFORNIA. 

the  Inyo  County  line  in  Township  25  North,  Range  43  West, 
M.  I).  M.  The  beds  are  of  special  interest,  as  the  opera- 
tions there  in  1S74,  and  for  several  years  later,  were  the 
training  school  at  which  many  leaders  in  later  years  studied 
the  borates.  The  beds  were  discovered  February  14,  1863,  by 
Dennis  Searles  and  E.  M.  Shillings,  but  work  did  not  begin 
until  1874. 

The  San  Bernardino  Borax  Mining  Company  was  incor- 
porated in  1878  to  work  these  beds.  The  borax  beds  are  near 
the  center  of  a  playa  lake  that  is  10  miles  long  by  5  miles 
wide,  situated  1700  feet  above  sea-level. 

The  portion  productive  of  borax  is  an  oblong  area  of  about 
1700  acres,  slightly  depressed  below  the  general  level  of  the 
playa.  Water  stands  in  this  area  to  the  depth  of  a  foot  in 
wet  seasons.  The  old  shore  lines  of  this  arm  of  Lake  Aubury 
are  distinctly  to  be  seen  on  the  slopes  of  the  Slate  and  Argus 
ranges,  some  600  feet  above  the  playa  lake,  showing  the 
different  levels  of  the  ancient  lake. 

The  water  on  the  beds  is  of  a  dark  brown  color,  of  28  degrees 
density,  Baume.  The  mud  below  the  water  was  full  of  large 
crystals,  occurring  in  nests  as  in  Lake  County,  at  irregular 
intervals,  to  a  depth  of  3  or  4  feet.  The  natural  crystals  were 
of  a  green  color,  transparent,  and  often  contained  fluids  in 
their  large  cavities.  Curiously  enough  no  ulexite  or 
colemanite  was  ever  found  in  this  playa. 

Thirteen  tons  of  the  crude  material  produced  one  ton  of 
borax,  equal  to  7.69  per  cent.  The  beds  were  not  regular,  but 
quite  spotted  in  borax. 

The  associated  minerals  were  anhydrite,  calcite,  celestite, 
cerargyrite,  docomenite,  embolite,  gay-lussite,  glauberite,  gold, 
gypsum,  halite,  hanksite,  natron,  soda,  niter,  sulphur,  thenar- 
dite,  and  trona;  most  of  these  occurring,  however,  in  small 
quantities  only. 

Artesian  water  was  obtained  at  a  depth  of  55  feet  that  rose 
3  feet  above  the  surface.  The  dry,  hard  playa  crust,  about 
one  foot  thick,  was  analyzed  by  C.  N.  Hake,  as  follows: 

Sand 50-0 

Soda  sulphate 16.0 

Salt 12.0 

Soda  carbonate 10.0 

Borax 12.0 

100.0 


BORATES — SAN    BERNARDINO   COUNTY.  65 

The  method  of  working  was  simple,  consisting  of  scraping 
the  crust  into  windrows,  and  then  gathering  by  carts  and 
taking  it  to  the-  works  two  miles  distant.  It  was  noted  here, 
in  digging  the  crystals  out  of  the  mud,  that  the  crystals  grew. 
The  holes  left  soon  filled  with  water  containing  boric  acid  in 
solution;  this,  coming  into  contact  with  soda,  formed  crystals 
of  biborate  of  soda  (borax),  which  were  deposited  in  the  mini. 
Large  vats  were  dug  in  the  mud  and  brush  thrown  in  lor  the 
crystals  to  form  on.  On  ground  that  had  been  worked  over,  a 
new  crust  formed  also  that  was  thick  enough  to  remove  in 
three  or  four  years.     Such  growths  give  the  following  analysis: 

6  Mos  2  N  3  Vrs.  i  Yi  -. 

-   ad      58.0  I  |  53.3 

Soda  carbonate          5.2  5.0  8.]  8.0 

Soda  sulphate     11. 7  16.7  16.6  16.0 

Soda  chloride       10.9  10.0  n.  1  ti.8 

Boras      14.2  12.9  1 1.8  10.9 

It  will  he  noted  that  the  borax  is  richest  at  first,  ami  that 
the  sodas  increase  faster  than  the  borax.  The  effect  of  the 
.Kolian  sands  is  especially  noticeable. 

These  analyses  throw  considerable  light  upon  the  genesis  of 
the  deposits. 

Borings  made  here  in  [867  are  of  special  interest  in  studying 
the  genesis  of  the  bottom  of   Lake  Anbury: 

(i.l      J  feet  of  salt  and  thenardite. 

(  j.  I  2  feet  of  clay,  volcanic  sand,  containing  a  few  crystals 
and  bunches  o|    hanksite. 

(3.)  8  feet  of  volcanic  sand;  black,  tenacious  clays,  bunches 
of  trona,  black  and  shiny. 

(4.)  8  feet  of  volcanic  sand  containing  glauberite,  thenar- 
dite. and  a  few  crystals  of  hanksite. 

(5.)  28  feet  of  solid  trona  (hydrous  carbonate  of  soda)  of 
fine  quality. 

(6.)  22  feet  of  black,  slushy,  soft  mud,  strong  in  hydrogen 
sulphide,  with  layers  of  glauberite,  soda,  and  hanksite. 

(7.)  230  feet  of  brown  clay  and  volcanic  mud,  strongly 
impregnated  with  hydrogen  sulphide. 

Borings  in  other  playa  lakes  would  reveal  strata  similar  in 
genera]  to  these.  Compare  also  the  "Order  of  Deposits"  in 
the  notes  on  Lake  Anbury. 

I,v         Other  Playa  and  Saline  Lakes. — There  are  many  playa  lakes 
in  this  count>  that  contain  borates  in  varying  quantities,  some 
5— Bul.  24 


66  THE   SALINE    DEPOSITS   OF   CALIFORNIA. 

of  them  in  commercial  quantities;  but  the  consolidation  of 
interests  at  Calico  by  the  large  producers  has  checked  all 
exploration  of  these  deposits.  The  following  list  of  the  most 
prominent  ones  is  given,  not  only  for  the  sake  of  the  record, 
but  also  to  give  a  clearer  idea  of  the  extent  of  Lake  Aubury, 
as  these  playas  are  all  simply  pools  left  in  the  desiccation  of 
that  great  lake;  and  the  history  of  one  is  the  history  of  all, 
geologically. 

In  giving  the  meridian,  S.  B.  M.  means  the  San  Bernardino 
meridian,  and  M.  D.  M.  the  Mount  Diablo  meridian. 

AvAWATZ — T.  16  X.,  R.  4  E.,  S.  B.  M.  vSan  Bernardino 
County. 

Ballarat— T.  21,  22,  23  X.,  R.  44  E.,  M.  D.  M.  Inyo 
County. 

Bristol— T.  4,  5  X.,  R.  11,  12,  13,  14  X.,  S.  B.  M.  San 
Bernardino  County. 

Buckhorn — T.  9,  10  X.,  R.  9,  10  W.,  S.  B.  M.     Kern  County. 

Burts— T.  1  X".,  R.  12  E.,  S.  B.  M.     San  Bernardino  County. 

Cactus— T.  15  S.,  R.  19  E.,  S.  B.  M.     San  Diego  County. 

China— T.  25  S.,  R.  40,  41  E.,  M.  D.  M.  Kern  and  San 
Bernardino  Counties. 

Cronese— T.  12  X.,  R.  6  E.,  S.  B.  M.  San  Bernardino 
County. 

Coyote— T.  11,  12  X.,  R.  2  E.,  S.  B.  M.  San  Bernardino 
County. 

Danby— T.  1,  2  X.,  R.  17,  iS,  19  E.,  S.  B.  M.  San  Bernardino 
County. 

Death  Valley—  T.  23  to  27  X.,  R.  1  E.,  S.  B.  M.  Inyo 
County. 

Franklin—  T.  25  X.,  R.  5,  6  E.,  S.  B.  M.      Inyo  County. 

Hari-kk— T.  11  S.,  R.  4  YV.,  S.  B.  M.  San  Bernardino 
County. 

Ivanlah — T.  15,  16,  17  X.,  R.  16  E.,  S.  B.  M.  San  Bernar- 
dino County. 

Kane— T.  29,  30  S.,  R.  38,  39  E.,  M.  I).  M.      Kern  County. 

Lander— T.  26,  27  S.,  R.  40  E.,  M.  I).  M.     Kern  County. 

Langford — T.  13  X.,  R.  3,  4  E.,  S.  B.  M.  San  Bernardino 
County. 

Lavic — T.  7,  8  X.,  R.  5,  6  E.,  S.  B.  M.  San  Bernardino 
County. 

Mojaye— T.  6,  7  X.,  R.  4,  5  YV.,  S.  B.  M.  San  Bernardino 
County. 


SALT  AM)  BORAX   FLATS    DP  \ Til  VALLEY    fNYO  COUNTY. 


BORIC  ACID  WORKS— CRYSTALLIZING   TANKS     BARTLETT  WORKS,   NEAR 
DAGGETT,  SAX  BERNARDINO  COUNTY. 


68  THE    SALINE    DEPOSITS   OF    CALIFORNIA. 

Mud  Volcanoes — T.  10  S.,  R.  13  E.,  S.  B.  M.  San  Diego 
County. 

Owens— T.  16,  17,  18  S.,  R.  36.  37.  38  K.,  M.  I).  M.  Inyo 
County. 

RABBIT— T.  4  X..  R.  1  K..  S.  B.  M.     San  Bernardino  County. 

Resting  Springs — T.  21,  22,  23  X.,  R.  6,  7  E.,  S.  B.  M. 

Inyo  Count}'. 

Rosamond — T.  9  X.,  R.  11,  12  \\\.  S.  B.  M.     Kern  County. 

Salton — T.  8,  9,  10,  11  S.,  R.  9,  10,  11,  12,  13  E.,  S.  B.  M. 
San  Diego  County. 

Salt  Marsh— T.  14  S.,  R.  38,  39  E.,  M.  D.  M.     Inyo  County. 

Seari.es — T.  24,  25  S.,  R.  42  E.,  M.  D.  M.  Inyo  and  San 
Bernardino  Counties. 

Soda— T.  ii,  12.  13  X..  R.  8,  9  F...  S.  B.  M.  San  Bernardino 
County. 

Tecorah— T.  20  X..  R.  S,  9  E.,  S.  B.  M.     Inyo  County. 

WlLLARDS — T.  30.  31  S.,  R.  42  E..  M.  D.  M.  San  Bernardino 
County. 

69     Unnamed    Lakes. 

Xo.     1— T.  16  X.,  R.  2  E.,  S.  B.  M.     San  Bernardino  County. 

Xo.     2— T.  16  X.,  R.  2  E.,  S.  B.  M.     San  Bernardino  County. 

Xo.  3 — T.  14,  15  X.,  R.  1  E.,  S.  B.  M.  San  Bernardino 
County. 

Xo.     4 — T.  14  X.,  R.  3  E.,  S.  B.  M.     San  Bernardino  County. 

Xo.     5 — T.  14  X.,  R.  6  E..  S.  B.  M.     .San  Bernardino  County. 

Xo.     6— T.  13  X.,  R.  6  E.,  S.  B.  M.     San  Bernardino  County. 

Xo.     7— T.  10  X.,  R.  2  \V..  S.  B.  M.     San  Bernardino  County. 

No.     8— T.  6.  7  X..  R.  7  \V.,  S.  B.  M.     San  Bernardino  County. 

Xo.  9 — T.  2,  3  X.,  R.  14,  15,  16  E.,  S.  B.  M.  San  Bernardino 
County. 

Xo.  10— T.  26  S.,  R.  42  E.,  M.  D.  M.      San  Bernardino  County. 

Xo.  11—  T.  3  X..  R.  8  I-.,  S.  B.  M.     San  Bernardino  County. 

Xo.  12 — T.  2  X.,  R.  9  E..  S.  B.  M.     San  Bernardino  County. 

Xo.  13 — T.  1  X.,  R.  9  E.,  S.  B.  M.     San  Bernardino  County. 

Xo.  14 — T.  17  X.,  R.  2,  3  E..  S.  B.  M.    San  Bernardino  County. 

Xo.  15 — T.  4  X.,  R.  5,  6  E.,  S.  B.  M.    San  Bernardino  County. 

Xo.  16 — T.  4  X.,  R.  4.  5  I'...  S.  B.  M.     San  Bernardino  County. 

Xo.  17 — T.  5  X.,  R.  5  E.,  S.  B.  M.     .San  Bernardino  County. 

Xo.  18 — T.  31  S.,  R.  46  E..  M.  D.  M.     San  Bernardino  County. 

Xo.  19 — T.  31  S..  R.  46  E.,  M.  D.  M.     San  Bernardino  County. 

Xo.  20 — T.  31  S..  R.  46  E.,  M.  D.  M.     San  Bernardino  County. 


BORATES — TEHAMA    AND   VENTURA    COUNTIES.  69 

X,,.  21— T.  8  X..  R.  8  I;...  S.  B.  M.     San  Bernardino  County. 
X,,.  22— T.  6  S..  R.  t8,  19  E.,  S.  B.  M.      Riverside  County. 
Nll    23— T.  9  S..  R.  6,  7  I;...  S.  R.  M.      San  Diego  County. 
X,,    24— T.  12  S..  R.  8  E.,  S.  B.  M.     San  Diego  County. 
X,,.  25— T.  12  S..  R.  8  F...  S.  B.  M.     San  Diego  County. 
X,,.  2( — T.  is  S..  R.  42  I*...  M.  D.  M.      Inyo  County. 
Xo.  27— T.  9  X.,  R.  8  E.,  S.  B.  M.     San  Bernardino  County. 
X,,.  28— T.  6  X..  R.  6  E.,  S.  B.  M.     San  Bernardino  County. 
X,).  29— T.  6,  7  X..  R.  9  W..  S.  B.  M.      Kern  County. 
X,,.  30— T.  9  X.,  R.  10  W.,  S.  B.  M.      Kern  County. 
There  arc  many  other  small  ones  not  noted  011  any  published 
maps  or  surveys. 

70  TEHAMA  COUNTY. 

The  first  discovery  of  borax  on  the  American  continent  was 
made  in  this  county  on  January  8,  [856,  by  Dr.  John  A. 
Veatch.  He  identified  the  mineral  while  evaporating  water 
from  the  "Tuscan  Springs,"  which  are  also  known  as  the 
'Lick  Springs."  Although  several  pounds  were  secured,  and 
specimens  were  sent  to  the  Academy  of  Sciences  at  San  Fran- 
cisco, no  borax  was  produced  of  commercial  value,  as  the 
amount  present  in  the  waters  was  too  small  to  work.  The 
springs  where  the  discovery  was  made  lie  about  eight  miles 
east  of  Red  Bluff.  Free  boric  acid  is  found  as  an  efflorescence 
around  the  springs. 

While  Tehama  County  has  the  honor  of  the  discovery,  no 
borax  has  been  produced  within  her  boundaries.  Traces  of  the 
saline  are  common  in  the  numerous  salt  springs  along  the  east 
flank  of  the  Coast  Range  in  this  and  in  Shasta  County. 
These  springs  occur  either  in  the  sandstone,  or  in  the  magne- 
sian  limestone  above  it;  and  the  presence  of  borates  may  be 
looked  for  if  there  are  any  indications  of  volcanic  disturbances 
in  the  region  of  the  spring.  The  presence  of  boric  acid  has 
also  been  found  in  the  springs  of  Solano,  Colusa,  and  other 
counties.     (See  "Springs  Containing  Borates.") 

71  VENTURA  COUNTY. 

barge  and  valuable  beds  of  colemanite  are  being  worked  in 
this  county,  and  with  the  building  of  the  railroad  now  in 
progress,  the  district  will  probably  become  a  prominent  pro- 
ducer, as  the  field  is  extensive  and  the  beds  of  excellent  value. 


70  THE   SALINE   DEPOSITS   OF   CALIFORNIA. 

The  beds  were  discovered  in  1899,  and  the  Stauffer  Chemical 
Company,  of  San  Francisco,  has  been  the  pioneer  in  this  field. 
The  company  has  located  some  2000  acres  in  the  Piru  Mineral 
District,  in  Township  8  North,  Ranges  21,  22  West,  S.  B.  M. 
The  croppings,  however,  are  said  to  extend  for  eight  miles 
over  the  mountains.  The  vein  is  4  feet  thick,  the  colemanite 
carrying  34  per  cent  of  the  anhydrate. 

The  beds  are  similar  in  their  general  features  to  those  at 
Calico,  except  that  here  there  are  large  beds  of  gypsum  in  the 
sedimentary  strata  above  the  borates.  Although  the  crude 
material  has  to  be  hauled  some  sixty  miles  by  wagon  to 
Bakersfield,  yet  from  100  to  200  tons  a  month  are  mined  and 
shipped  to  the  Stauffer  Chemical  Works  at  San  Francisco,  or 
to  the  borax  factory  of  T.  Thorkildsens  Co.  at  Chicago. 


SPRINGS  CONTAINING  BORATES. 

While  the  presence  of  boric  acid,  and  borates,  in  small 
quantities,  in  many  of  the  well-known  springs  of  the  State  is 
not  of  commercial  importance,  yet  it  shows  the  wide  distribu- 
tion of  the  mineral.  Full  investigation  will  probably  extend 
the  following  list  until  nearly  every  county  of  the  State  is 
included,  as  the  presence  of  boric  acid,  or  its  compounds,  may 
be  looked  for  wherever  there  are  indications  of  volcanic  dis- 
turbances in  the  region  of  the  spring. 

Alameda  County. — Piedmont  White  Sulphur  Springs:  1.90 
to  5.23  grains  in  one  U.  S.  gallon. 

Butte  County. — Mount  Ida,  four  miles  east  of  Oroville. 
Strong  traces. 

Colusa  County. — Traces  of  borax  in  the  salt  springs  on 
Stony  Creek. 

El  Dorado  County. — Glen  Alpine  Springs.     Traces. 

Humboldt  County. — Eureka.  Strong  traces  from  a  spring 
at  the  edge  of  the  bay.  This  spring  is  reported  as  rich  also 
in  magnesia  and  lithia. 

Lake  County. — In  addition  to  Borax  Lake,  already  described, 
borax  has  been  found  in  the  Anderson,  Bartlett,  Harbin,  Nep- 
tune, Diana,  and  Witter  springs,  and  probably  exists  in  many 
others  not  yet  tested  for  it.  (See  "  Register  of  Mines  and 
Minerals  of  Lake  County,"  California  State   Mining  Bureau.) 


I'l  THE    SALINE    DEPOSITS   OF    CALIFORNIA. 

Mendocino  County. — Borax  spring  one  and  one  half  miles 
from  Hopland  Station. 

Mono  County. — The  waters  of  Mono  Lake  have  been  tested 
main-  times  by  chemists,  who  report  all  the  way  from  traces  to 
19.75  grains  per  gallon.  (See  Mono  County,  under  "  Car- 
bonates.") 

Napa  County. — Samuels  Soda  Spring.     Traces. 

Placer  County. — Summit  Soda  Springs.     Traces. 

Santa  Clara  County. — Soda  Springs,  twelve  miles  east  of 
Madrone.     Traces. 

San  Luis  Obispo  County. — Santa  Ysabel.  El  Pasode  Robles 
Springs.     Traces. 

Shasta  County.  —  Mouth  of  Pitt  River.  Common  along 
Coast  Range. 

Solano  County. — Lytton  Springs,  near  Healdsburg.    Traces. 

Sonoma  County. — Agua    Rica    Springs.      Traces.      White 

Sulphur  Springs.     Lytton  Springs. 

Tehama  County. — Lick  or  Tuscan  Springs.  Borax  first 
discovered  here.  Elevation,  925  feet.  Springs  cover  an  area 
of  10  acres  in  a  basin  of  600  acres.  On  an  anticlinal  axis- 
surrounded  by  volcanic  bluffs.  Temperature  of  water  from 
670  to  940.     Common  in  the  springs  along  the  Coast  Range. 


73  DESERT  SPRINGS. 

The  following  list  of  desert  springs  does  not  include  those 
located  at  well-known  mining  camps  and  settlements.  Many 
of  the  springs  in  the  list  are  saline,  and  a  few  are  so  strongly 
impregnated  with  borax  or  other  minerals  as  to  make  their 
waters  unfit  to  drink.  The  list  may  aid  prospectors  and  trav- 
elers in  various  ways.  Additions  and  corrections  should  be 
sent  to  the  State  Mining  Bureau,  San  Erancisco.  "S.  B.  M." 
means  San  Bernardino  meridian,  and  "M.  I).  M."  Mount  Diablo 
meridian. 

74  INYO  COUNTY. 

Arab— T.  19  S..  R.  39  E..  M.  D.  M.     Coso  Valley. 
Bennett's  Wells— T\   25  N.,  R.  1  I-;..   S.  B.   ML     Death 
Valley. 


DEVIL'S   ROCKING-CHAIR,   MOUTH  OF   A.MARGOSA 
<   VSON    SAN    BERNARDINO  COUNTY. 


AT  A  DESERT  OASIS 


74  THK    SALINE    DEPOSITS   OF    CALIFORNIA. 

Bird— T.  15  S.,  R.  41  E.,  M.  D.  M.     Butte  Valley. 
Boiling— T.  21  X.,  R.  6  K.,  S.  B.  M.     Amargosa  Valley. 
Boiling— T.  21  X..  R.  7  E.,  S.  B.  M.     Amargosa  Valley. 
China  Ranch— T.   20    X.,   R.  7    E.,  S.    B.    M.     Amargosa 

Canon. 

Cold— T.  13  S.,  R.  39  E.,  M.  I).  M.     Saline  Valley. 

Crystal— T.  20  S.,  R.  39  E.,  M.  D.  M.     Coso  Valley. 

Emigrant— T.  17  S.,  R.  46  K.,  M.  1).  M.     Lost  Valley. 

FOUNTAIN— T.  2S  X.,  R.  1  K..  S.  B.  M.     Lost  Valley. 

Franklin  WELLS— T.  26  X..  R.  6  K.,  S.  B.  M.  Amargosa 
Valley. 

Fresh—  T.  22  X..  R.  6  E..  S.  B.  M.     Amargosa  Valley. 

Furnace— T.  27  X..  R.  2  E.,  S.  B.  M.     Death  Valley. 

Greenland— T.  27  X..  R.  1  E.,  S.  B.  M.    Death  Valley. 

Horses— T.  21  X.,  R.  9  E.,  S.  B.  M.  Amargosa  Valley. 
Also  called  Tule  Spring. 

Hot— T.  13  S.,  R.  39  E.,  M.  I).  M.     Saline  Valley. 

Indian— T.  13  S.,  R.  43  E.,  M.  D.  M.     Lost  Valley. 

Lagunita— T.  23  S.,  R.  38  I*..,  M.  D.  M. 

MESQUITE— T.  24  N.,  R.  1  E.,  S.  B.  M.     Death  Valley. 

Nile— T.  22  S.,  R.  42  E.,  M.  D.  M.     Panamint  Valley. 

(Xo  name)— T.  14  S.,  R.  45  E..  M.  D.  M.     Lost  Valley. 

(No  name)— T.  16  S.,  R.  46  E.,  M.  I).  M.     Lost  Valley. 

(Xd  name) — T.  17  S.,  R.  38  E.,  M.  D.  M.  East  side  Owens 
Lake. 

(Xo  name)— T.  17  S..  R.  43  !•..,  M.  D.  M.     Butte  Valley. 

(  Xo  name) — T.  22  S.,  R.  42  E.,  M.  D.  M.     Panamint  Valley. 

(No  name)—  T.  15  S.,  R.  45  E.,  M.  I).  M.     Lost  Valley. 

RESTING— T.  21  X..  R.  8  E.,  S.  B.  M.     Amargosa  Valley. 

ROSE— T.  21  S.,  R.  37  E.,  M.  D.  M.     Owens  Valley. 

SALT— T.  26  X.,  R.  1  E..  S.  B.  M.      Death  Valley. 

Soda— T.  22  S.,  R.  44  E.,  M.  I).  M.      Panamint  Valley. 

SULPHUR— T.  19  S.,  R.  44  E.,  M.  D.  M.      Panamint  Valley. 

Summit— T.  24  S..  R.  43  E.,  M.  D.  M.     Panamint  Valley. 

Surveyor's— T.  15  S.,  R.  46  E.,  M.  I).  M.     Lost  Valley. 

TECOPAH— T.  20  N.,  R.  9  Iv.  S.  B.  M.     Willow  Creek  Valley. 

Tiirkk  Si'rinos— T.  is  S.,  R.  38  E.,  M.  D.  M.  South  end  of 
Owens  Lake. 

TULE— T.  21  X..  R.  9  !•;..  S.  B.  M  Amargosa  Valley.  Also 
called  Horses  Spring. 

TULE— T.  2«5  X..  R.  1  !•:..  S.  B.  M.     Death  Vallev. 


SARATOGA   SPRINGS,   DEATH   VALLEY,  SAX   BERNARDINO 

COUNTY. 


SARATOGA   LAKES,  DEATH  VALLEY,  SAX  BERNARDINO 

COUNTY. 


JQ  THE    SALINE    DEPOSITS   OF    CALIFORNIA. 

UNION— T.  14  S..  R.  36  K.,  M.  D.  M.      Owens  Valley. 
WATER  Station- — T.   24  S.,  R.  43  H..  M.  I).  M.     Panamint 
Valley. 

Wild  Rose— T.  19  S..  R.  44  E.,  M.  I).  M.      Panamint  Valley. 
Wilson's  Wki.l— T.  15  S..  R.  43  E..  M.  I).  M.     Butte  Valley. 

75  KERN  COUNTY. 

BUCKHORN— T.  9  X..  R.  9  W.,  S.  B.  M.      Bnckhorn  Lake. 

Cow  Wells— T.  29  S.,  R.  39  E..  M.  D.  M. 

Coyote— T.  27  S.,  R.  37  E.,  M.  I).  M. 

Desert  Station— T.  32  S.,  R.  37  E..  M.  I).  M. 

El  Paso  Wells— T.  28  S.,  R.  40  E..  M.  D.  M. 

Flowing  Wells— T.  10  X.,  R.  8  W.,  S.  B.  M.  Buckhorn 
Lake. 

(  Grapevine— T.  25  S.,  R.  38  E.,  M.  D.  M.     Salt  Wells  Valley. 

Indian— T.  9  X.,  R.  11  W.,  S.  B.  M. 

Indian— T.  26  S.,  R.  38  E.,  M.  D.  M.     Salt  Wells  Valley. 

Kane— T.  30  S.,  R.  38  E.,  M.  I).  M.     Kane  Lake. 

Lander  Well— T.  27  S.,  R.  40  E.,  M.  D.  M.  Salt  Wells 
Valley. 

Mesouite— T.  30  S.,  R.  38  E.,  M.  I).  M.     Kane  Lake. 

(  Xo  name)— T.  9  X.,  R.  9  W.,  S.  B.  M.     Bnckhorn  Lake. 

(Xo  name)— T.  29  S..  R.  36  E.,  M.  D.  M. 

Water  Station— T.  32  S.,  R.  36  E.,  M.  I).  M. 

Willow— T.  10  X.,  R.  13  W.,  S.  B.  M. 

7G  RIVERSIDE  COUNTY. 

Boulder  Co.  Well— T.  5  S..  R.  14  E.,  S.  B.  M. 
Brown's  Well— T.  5  S.,  R.  16  E.,  S.  B.  M. 
Canon— T.  7  S.,  R.  13  E.,  S.  B.  M. 
Chuckawalla— T.  8  S..  R.  16  !•..  S.  B.  M. 
Cottonwood— T.  5  S.,  R.  12  E.,  S.  B.  M. 
Granite  Tanks— T.  6  S..  R.  16  E.,  s.  B.  M. 
McCoy's— T.  5  S.,  R.  20  E..  S.  B.  M. 
Mule— T.  8  S..  R.  20  I-;..  S.  B.  M. 
(No  name)— T.  7  S.,  R.  16  E..  S.  B.  M. 
(Xo  name)— T.  7  S..  R.  21  E.,  S.  B.  M. 
(  Xo  name)— T.  8  S.,  R.  19  E.,  S.  B.  M. 

Palen's  Well— T.  4  s..  R.  ifi  !•;..  s.  B.  M. 


WATERFALL     VMARGOSA    RIVER     FNYO  COUNTY. 


1    1   SERT   CACTI'S 


78  THK    SALINE    DEPOSITS    OF    CALIFORNIA. 

Smith— T.  2  S.,  R.  7  I'...  S.  B.  M. 
Stubbs— T.  2  S.,  R.  7  E.,  S.  B.  M. 
Sulphur— T.  7  S.,  R.  10  I-;.,  S.  B.  M. 

77  SAN  BERNARDINO  COUNTY. 

Barrel— T.  12  X.,  R.  8  E.,  S.  B.  M.     vSoda  Lake. 

Bedrock — T.  28  S.,  R.  41  E.,  M.  I).  M.     Lava  Mountains. 

Bitter— T.  13  X.,  R.  5  K.,  S.  B.  M. 

Black— T.  11  X.,  R.  3  W.,  S.  B.  M. 

Blackwatkr— T.  30  S.,  R.  43  E.,  M.  I).  Iff.     Pilot  Peak. 

Bonanza — T.  7  X.,  R.  15  E.,  S.   B.   M.     Clipper  Mountains. 

Borax— T.  12  X.,  R.  9  E.,  S.  B.  M.     Soda  Lake. 

Burt's  Well—  T.  i  X.,  R.  12  E.,  S.  B.  M. 

CAVE— T.  17  X.,  R.  5  E.,  S.  B.  M.     Avawatz  Mountains. 

City— T.  30  S.,  R.  41  E.,  M.  D.  M.  Five  miles  east  of 
Johannesburg. 

Cooley's  Well— T.  1  X.,  R.  18  E.,  S.  B.  M.     Danby  Lake. 

Copper— T.  4  XT.,  R.  2  E.,  S.  B.  M. 

Cottonwood — T.  9  X.,  R.  13  E.,  vS.  B.  M.  Granite 
Mountains. 

Cove— T.  8  X.,  R.  13  E.,  S.  B.  M. 

Coyote  Holes— T.  i  X.,  R.  7  E.,  S.  B.  M. 

Coyote  Holes— T.  ii  X.,  R.  2  E.,  S.  B.  M.     Coyote  Lake. 

Coyote  Holes— T.  18  N.,  R.  10  E,  S.  B.  M. 

Cronese— T.  12  X.,  R.  6  E.,  S.  B.  M.     Cronese  Lake. 

Fenner—  T.  8  X.,  R.  18  E.,  S.  B.  M.      Piute  Mountains. 

Fourth  of  July— T.  18  X.,  R.  2  E.,  S.  B.  M.  Brown 
Mountain. 

Francis— T.  15  X.,  R.  11  E.,  S.  B.  M. 

Fresh— T.  14  X..  R.  11  E.,  S.  B.  M. 

Garlic— T.  13  X.,  R.  3  E.,  S.  B.  M. 

Government  Holes— T.  12  X..  R.  16  E.,  S.  B.  M. 

Government  Wells— T.  12  X.,  R.  8  E.,  S.  B.  M.  Soda 
Lake. 

Granite  WELLS— T.  29  S.,  R.  44  E.,  M.  D.  M.     Pilot  Peak. 

Grant— T.  1 1  X.,  R.  3  \V..  S.  B.  M. 

Halloran— T.  14  X.,  R.  10  E.,  vS.  B.  M. 

Hidden— T.  [8  X.,  R.  1  E.,  S.  B.  M.     Brown  Mountain. 

Horse  Thief— T.  19  X.,  R.  11  E.,  S.  B.  M.  Kingston 
Mountains. 

Indian— T.  30  S.,  R.  47  E..  M.  D.  M. 


THE  DEAD  BURRO  DEATH  VALLEY. 


MINING  BUREAU  EXPEDITION. 


80  THE    SALINE    DEPOSITS   OF    CALIFORNIA. 

Kane— T.  8  X.,  R.  3  P..  S.  B.  M. 

Kessi.er— T.  14  X..  R.  14  E.,  S.  B.  M. 

Langford  Well— T.  13  X..  R.  3  E.,  S.  B.  M. 

LEACH'S— T.  17  X.,  R.  2  E..  S.  B.  M.      Leach's  Mountain. 

Lead— T.  28  S..  R.  46  E.,  M.  I).  M. 

LONE  Star— T.  18  X.,  R.  2  K.,  S.  B.  M.     Brown    Mountain. 

Lone  Willow— T.  26  s.,  R.  46  K.,  m.  d.  m.  Brown 
Mountain. 

Lyons  Well— T.  i  X.,  R.  n  K..  S.  B.  M. 

Marl— T.  12  X..  R.  13  K.,  S.  B.  M. 

Mean's  Well— T.  4  X.,  R.  4  ]•;..  S.  B.  M. 

Mesquite— T.  2  X..  R.  s  !■;..  s.  B.  M. 

(Xo  name)—  T.  1  X.,  R.  21  E..  S.  B.  M. 

(Xo  name)—  T.  4  X..  R.  1  YV.,  S.  B.  M. 

(Xo  name)— T.  6  X.,  R.  2  E..  S.  B.  M.     Orel  Mountain. 

I  No  name)— T.  12  X.,  R.  2  K.,  S.  B.  M. 

(No  name)— T.  13  X.,  R.  12  E.,  S.  B.  M. 

(Xo  name)— T.  16  X.,  R.  4  K..  S.  B.  M. 

(Xo  name)— T.  17  X.,  R.  11  E.,  S.  B.  M. 

(Xo  name)—  T.  30  S.,  R.  45  E.,  M.  I).  M. 

Owl— T.  18  X.,  R.  3  Iv.  S.  B.  M.     Death  Valley. 

Old  Woman— T.  3  X.,  R.  3  E.,  S.  B.  M. 

Old  Woman— T.  5  X.,  R.  iX  E.,  S.  B.  M.  Old  Woman 
Mountain. 

Paradise— T.  12  X.,  R.  1  E.,  S.  B.  M. 

Pass — T.  13  X..  R.  15  E.,  S.  B.  M.      Providence  Mountains. 

PILOT— T.  29  S.,  R.  44  E.,  M.  I).  M.      Pilot  Peak. 

Piute— T.  12  X.,  R.  18  E.  S.  B.  M. 

Providence — T.  9  X\,  R.  14  E.,  S.  B.  M.  Providence 
Mountains. 

Quail— T.  i8N.,  R.  2  E..  S.  B.  M.      Brown  Mountain. 

QUAIL— T.  28  S..  R.  41  E.,  M.  D.  M.     Lava  Mountains. 

Rahhit— T.  4  X.,  R.  1  W..  S.  B.  M. 

Rock— T.  i  i  X..  R.  15  E..  S.  B.  M. 

Rock,— T.  12  X.,  R.  16  E..  S.  B.  M. 

Rock  Ciirkai-T.  3  X.,  R.  5  E.,  vS.  B.  M. 

Saratoga— T.  [8  X..  R.  5  !•:..  S.  B.  M.     Death  Valley. 

SALT— T.  [8  X.,  R.  7  E.,  S.  P.  M.     Death  Valley. 

Salt— T.  ig  X..  R.  4  E.,  S.  B.  M.      Death  Valley. 

Squaw— T.  30  S..  R.  42  !•:..  M.  D.  M. 

Star— T.  32  S.,  R.  43  E.,  M.  D.  M. 

Stoddard's  Wells— T.  7  X.,  R.  2  W..  S.  B.  M. 


'■    J 

•'    KB 

fc 

GYPSUM   VEIN,  AMARGOSA   RIVER,  SAN 
BERNARDINO  COUNTY. 


BOCENE   BLUFFS,  WIIJ.OW  CREEK,  INYO  COUNTY. 


6— Bul.  24. 


82  THE    SALINE    DEPOSITS   OP    CALIFORNIA. 

Sulphur— T.  2  X.,  R.  8  K.,  S.  B.  M. 
Surprise— T.  3  X.,  R.  7  E,,  S.  B.  M. 

VALLEY— T.  16  X.,  R.  13  K.,  S.  B.  M.     Clark's  Mountain. 

Warm— T.  9  X.,  R.  3  K.,  S.  B.  M.     Newberry  Mountain. 

Warner's  Well— T.  i  X.,  R.  5  E.,  S.  B.  M. 

WATER  Tank— T.  11  X.,  R.  18  E.,  S.  B.  M. 

Well— T.  10  X.,  R.  7  W.,  vS.  B.  M. 

WELL— T.  1 1  X.,  R.  8  E.,  S.  B.  M.     Soda  Lake. 

Wilbur's  Well— T.  3  X.,  R.  5  E.,  S.  B.  M. 

Willard's  Wells— T.  30  S.,  R.  42  E.,  M.  I).  M. 

WILLOW— T.  6  X.,  R.  2  E.,  S.  B.  M.     Ord  Mountain. 

Willow— T.  8  X.,  R.  12  E.,  S.  B.  M. 

WILLOW— T.  12  X.,  R.  2  E.,  S.  B.  M.     Coyote  Lake. 

Willow— T.  27  S.,  R.  41  E..  M.  D.  M. 

78  SAN  DIEGO  COUNTY. 

Borego— Sec.  17,  T.  11  S.,  R.  7  E.,  S.  B.  M. 

Bowers— Sec.  22,  T.  10  S.,  R.  9  E.,  S.  B.  M. 

Coyote  Wells— Sec.  29,  T.  16  S.,  R.  10  E.,  S.  B.  M. 

Fish— T.  9  S.,  R.  9  E.,  S.  B.  M.     Salton  Sea. 

Fish  Boiling  Spring— Sec.  26,  T.  12  S.,  R.  7  E.,  S.  B.  M. 

Frinks— T.  9  S.,  R.  13  E.,  S.  B.  M. 

Indian  Wells— T.  16  S.,  R.  13  E.,  S.  B.  M. 

McCain— Sec.  18,  T.  11  S.,  R.  10  E.,  S.  B.  M. 

Mesouite  Oil  Co.  Well— Sec.  26,  T.  12  S..  R.  7  E.,S.  B.  M. 

Mt.  Palm— T.  10  S.,  R.  8  E.,  S.  B.  M. 

Mud— Sec.  5,  T.  10  S,,  R.  9  E.,  S.  B.  M. 

(Xo  name)— Sec.  1,  T.  11  S.,  R.  10  E.,  S.  B.  M. 

(Xo  name)— Sec.  22,  T.  11  S.,  R.  10  E.,  S.  B.  M. 

(No  name)— Sec.  28,  T.  11  S.,  R.  10  E.,  S.  B.  M. 

(No  name)— Sec.  35,  T.  10  S.,  R.  10  E.,  S.  B.  M. 

(  Xo  name)— T.  9  S..  R.  7  E.,  S.  B.  M. 

Palm— T.  10  S.,  R.  9  E.,  S.  B.  M. 

Sackett's  Well— T.  15  S.,  R.  11  E.,  S.  B.  M. 

Soda— Sec.  7,  T.  1 1  S.,  R.  10  E..  S.  B.  M. 

Soda— T.  12  S.,  R.  12  E..  S.  B.  M. 

Soda— Sec.  36,  T.  10  S.,  R.  9  E.,  S.  B.  M. 

Seventeen  Palms— Sec.  35,  T.  10  S.,  R.  8  E.,  S.  B.  M. 

Tele— T.  11  S.,  R.  10  E.,  S.  B.  M. 

Yucca— Sec.  8,  T.  17  S.,  R.  n  E.,  S.  B.  M. 

Zacatan— Sec.  8,  T.  11  S.,  R.  9  E.,  S.  B.  M. 


BORATES — PROCESSES   OF    MANUFACTUR] 


PROCESSES  OF  MANUFACTURE. 

Progress  in  the  processes  of  manufacture  has  kept  up  with 
the  constantly  increasing  demand  for  borax  at  a  low  price. 
This  is  shown  by  comparing  the  methods  at  Borax  Lake,  in 
Lake  County,  in  [864,  and  at  the  huge  works  at  Bayonne,  New 
Jersey,  that  handle  the  crude  material  from  this  State. 

f'.very  year  lias  seen  some  improvement  made  in  the  industry 
in  the  way  of  more  perfect  appliances  and  processes.  The 
process  at  first  used  in  Lake  County  consisted  in  boiling  the 
borax  and  crystallizing  it  in  small  pans  holding  from  2  to  3 
gallons  each;  and  the  plant  that  produced  the  first  12  tons  in 
[864  consisted  of  some  4000  such  pans.  The  processes  at  the 
period  when  the  "marsh"  beds  were  worked  consisted  of  boil- 
ing the  crude  material  in  large  iron  tanks  and  then  running 
the  solution  into  wood  or  iron  settling  tanks,  the  crude  borax 
obtained  being  purified  by  re-crystallization. 

In  the  Calico  district  the  colemanite  ore  is  treated  as  follows 
at  Marion:  Low-grade  ores,  that  were  formerly  rejected,  are 
roasted  in  a  Holthoff-Withey  furnace,  with  two  hearths  having 
a  capacity  of  100  tons  a  day,  six  oil  burners  furnishing  the 
heat.  Colemanite  when  mildly  heated  is  reduced  to  a  fine 
powder,  which  is  bolted,  sacked,  and  shipped  to  the  company's 
works  at  Bayonne,  New  Jersey,  where  the  "flour"  is  boiled 
with  soda  to  form  borax.  Any  pandermite  ore  present,  is  not 
affected  by  the  heat  and  is  lost  in  the  waste,  known  locally  as 
"dry  bone."  This  waste  often  amounts  to  50  per  cent  of  the 
"flour"  secured. 

At  Bayonne  the  huge  machinery  is  driven  by  sets  of  inde- 
pendent electric  motors.  The  crude  colemanite  reaches  the 
works  in  sacks,  as  shipped  from  this  State.  It  is  first  coarse- 
crushed  on  the  ground  floor  of  the  works,  and  then  conveyed 
to  a  Cfriflin  mill,  which  reduces  it  to  the  fineness  of  flour.  It 
is  then  carried  by  a  screw  conveyor  to  the  foot  of  an  elevator, 
which  raises  it  to  the  first  floor.  Here  it  is  dropped  into  a 
100-ton  tank  and  boiled  with  water.  After  boiling,  it  is  drawn 
into  settling  tanks  on  the  second  floor,  where  the  clear  solution 
is  run  back  to  crystallizing  vats  on  the  first  floor,  the  sediment 
being  raised  by  a  centrifugal  pump  to  a  tank  on  the  third 
floor,  and  thence  into  a  filter  press  of  50  pounds  per  square 
inch,  the  pulp  receiving  finally,  however,  double  that  pressure. 


84  TIIK    SAL  INK    DEPOSITS    OF    CALIFORNIA. 

The  liquor  drawn  from  the  press  goes  back  to  the  settling 
tank,  and  the  refuse  cakes  go  to  the  dump. 

The  crystallizing  vats  are  of  sheet  iron  20  feet  long,  by  6 
feet  wide  and  61..  feet  deep.  Two-inch  iron  pipes  are  laid 
across  the  top  of  the  vats,  from  which  wires  5  feet  long  and 
0.25  inch  in  diameter  hang  into  the  vats.  As  the  solution 
cools,  the  borax  crystallizes  upon  the  wires  and  on  the  sides 
and  bottoms  of  the  vats.  After  crystallization,  the  mother 
liquor  is  pumped  out  and  used  again  as  a  solvent,  and  the 
borax  crystals  removed.  The  crystallized  borax  is  raised  to 
the  fourth  floor  to  crushing  rolls  and  screens  and  sorted  into 
three  sizes,  viz:  (1)  Refined  crystals;  (2)  Refined  screenings; 
(3)  Granulated  borax.  The  granulated  borax  is  then  dried  by 
hot  air,  in  an  inclined  rotary  cylinder;  then  pulverized  in  a 
Cyclone  pulverizer;  then  caught  in  dust  chambers;  and  finally 
barreled  for  the  market. 

It  is  found  that  while  the  borax  from  the  wires  in  the  vat  is 
pure,  that  from  the  sides  and  bottom  has  to  be  re-dissolved 
and  refined. 

80  Chlorine  Process. — This  process,  used  to  some  extent  in 
England,  is  sometimes  known  as  the  "Moore  Process."  The 
powdered  crude  colemanite  is  suspended  in  water  and  heated 
to  700  C.  while  chlorine  gas  is  passed  in ;  the  gas  is  quickly 
absorbed,  liberating  boric  acid,  and  forming  calcium  chloride 
and  chlorate.  On  cooling,  most  of  the  boric  acid  crystallizes 
out  and  is  purified  by  re-crystallization.  The  mother  liquor  is 
used  again  and  again  until  the  alkali  salts  have  accumulated 
sufficiently  in  it  to  separate. 

81  Hydrochloric  Acid  Process. — The  calcium  borate  is  treated 
with  2  parts  of  the  hydrochloric  acid  by  weight,  and  4  parts  of 
water,  and  boiled  until  digested,  the  water  that  evaporates 
being  replaced.  The  liquor  is  then  drawn  off,  and,  on  cooling, 
the  boric  acid  crystallizes  out,  the  sodium  and  calcium  chloride 
remaining.  The  boric  acid  crystals  are  drained,  pressed, 
whizzed,  washed  with  cold  water,  and  whizzed  again. 

82  Sttlphtiric  Acid  Process. — In  this,  the  borate  of  lime  is  treated 
with  sulphuric  acid,  and  the  boric  acid  formed  is  dissolved  out 
with  hot  water,  the  liquor  drawn  off,  and  evaporated  to 
crystallization. 

At  Calico  a  modification  of  this  process  is  used,  the  borate 


B3 


si 


BORATES — PROCESSES   OF    MANUFACTURE.  S.', 

mud  being  boiled  in  huge  tanks  with  sulphur.  The  borate  of 
lime  is  broken  up,  the  boric  acid  being  set  free  and  going  into 
solution:  the  lime  being  converted  into  insoluble  sulphate  of 
lime  The  mother  liquor  is  drawn  off  and  the  boric  acid  is 
obtained  by  fractional  crystallization.  Filter  presses  are  used 
at  the  works  of  the  Columbia  Company,  but  not  at  the  Bartlett 
works. 

Ammonia  Process. — Boric  acid  is  made,  by  the  Bigot  method, 
by  treating  loopartsof  colemanite  with  150  parts  of  ammonium 
sulphate,  by  heating  in  a  closed  vessel.  Ammonium  borate  is 
formed  at  first,  which  then  splits  up  into  boric  acid  and 
ammonia.      The  ammonia  is  condensed  and  collected. 

The  boric  acid  is  dissolved  out  of  the  residue  with  water, 
concentrated  and  crystallized. 

Borax  from  Boric  Acid. — To  prepare  borax  from  the  acid, 
no  to  120  parts  of  crystallized  sodium  carbonate  is  dissolved 
in  a  lead-lined  vessel,  heated  by  steam;  and  100  parts  of  boric 
acid  added  cautiously  to  the  closed  vessel. 

Another  method  is  to  prepare  the  solutions  in  the  proportion 
of  two  molecules  of  ammonia  and  one  molecule  of  sodium 
nitrate  to  two  molecules  of  boric  acid.  The  mixture  is  heated, 
and  dissolved  in  the  minimum  amount  of  water.  Biborate  of 
soda  (borax)  and  ammonium  nitrate  are  formed. 

The  borax  factory  at  Alameda,  California,  until  the  erection 
of  the  works  at  Bayonne,  Xew  Jersey,  and  the  formation  of  the 
Borax  Consolidated  Ltd.,  handled  all  of  the  material  mined  at 
Calico. 

The  works  consist  of  three  buildings,  each  three  stories 
high;  one  part  is  concrete  and  measures  40x230  feet;  another 
is  frame,  Sox  170  feet;  and  the  third  is  26x110  feet;  there  is 
also  a  one-story  building,  Sox  145  feet;  and  a  shed  30x110 
feet. 

The  process  there  was  as  follows:  The  crude  colemanite 
was  broken  to  nut  size  by  a  Blake  crusher;  then  it  passed  to 
the  grinding  m[\\%  where  it  was  reduced  to  sand:  then  to  rolls 
that  left  the  material  as  fine  as  flour.  The  floured  borate  was 
then  mixed  with  carbonate  of  soda  from  Owens  Lake,  and  the 
two  boiled  in  an  iron  tank,  where  it  was  thoroughly  stirred  by 
an  agitator. 

The  carbonate  of  soda  and  borate  of  lime  were  broken  up, 
the  reaction  forming  insoluble  carbonate  of  lime  and  soluble 


^•')  THE    SALINE    DEPOSITS   OF    CALIFORNIA. 

biborate  of  soda,  or  borax.  The  solution  of  borax  was  drawn 
off  into  tanks,  where  it  crystallized  in  dark  crystals,  the  mother 
liquor  being  drawn  off  and  used  over  again  in  boiling  more  of 
the  crude  material.  The  sediments  in  the  boiler  were  washed 
several  times  and  then  put  through  a  filter  press.  The  impure 
crystals  of  borax  were  dissolved  in  tanks  of  hot  water,  and  the 
solution  run  into  crystallizing  vats,  in  which  wires  were  sus- 
pended. The  borax  crystallized  on  the  wires  and  on  the  sides 
and  bottoms  of  the  tanks,  that  on  the  wires  being  the  purest. 
After  crystallization  the  borax  was  ground  and  sorted  by  sift- 
ing for  the  market. 


85  MINERALOGY. 

BORAX    MINERALS,    AND   THOSE    CONTAINING    BORIC    ACID 

IN  SMALL  QUANTITIES. 

86  Nordenskioldine. — A  borate  of  lime  and  tin.  Boric  acid, 
25.1;  tin  oxide,  54.5;  lime,  20.4.  Color,  sulphur-yellow.  Brit- 
tle.    Hardness,  5.5  to  6.     Gravity,  4.2.     Rare. 

87  Jeremejevite.  —  Borate  of  aluminum.  Boric  acid,  40.6; 
alumina,  59.4.  Colorless  to  pale  yellow.  Hardness,  6.5.  Grav- 
ity, 3.2. 

88  Sussexite. — A  borate  of  manganese  and  magnesia.  Boric 
acid,  34.1;  manganese,  41.5:  magnesia,  15.6.  Color,  white, 
with  tinge  of  pink  or  yellow.     Hardness,  3.     Gravity,  3.4. 

89  Ludwig-ite. — A  borate  of  iron  and  magnesia.  Boric  acid, 
16.6;  iron,  54.9;  magnesia,  28.5.  Color,  blackish  green  to 
black.      Hardness,  5.     Gravity,  3.9  to  4.0. 

90  Pinakiolite. — A  borate  of  manganese  and  magnesia.  Boric 
acid,  16.7;  manganese,  54.6;  magnesia,  28.7.  Color,  black. 
Hardness,  6.     Gravity,  3.8. 

91  Hamberg-ite. —  A  borate  of  beryllium.  Boric  acid,  37.1; 
beryllium,  53.3.  Color,  gray-white.  Hardness,  7.5.  Grav- 
ity, 2.3. 

92  Sizabelyite. —  Borate  of  magnesia.  Boric  acid,  38.1;  mag- 
nesia, 54.5.     Color,  white  outside,   yellow   within.      Hardness, 


BORAX    MINERALS. 

3  to  4.     Gravity,  3.     Of  special  interest  because  it  occurs  in 
limestone,  and  gives  weight  to  the  theory  that  rock  formations 
irry  borax  minerals  in  large  quantities. 

Boracite. —  Borate   of    magnesia.      Boric   acid,    62.5;    m. 

uesia,  .11.4;  chlorine,  7.0.  Color,  white  to  gray,  yellow  and 
green.  Hardness,  7.  Gravity,  2.9.  The  massive  variety 
resembles  fine-grained  marble. 

94  Rhodizite. — A  borate  of  aluminum  and  potassium.  boric 
acid,  33.93;  aluminum.  41.4:  potassium,  12.0.  Color,  white, 
translucent.  Hardness,  8.  Gravity,  3.3  to  3.4.  Contains  also 
caesium  and  rubidum.     Rare. 

95  Warwickite. — A  borate  and  titanate  of  iron  and  magnesia. 
Boric  acid,  27.80;  titanic  acid,  23.82;  magnesia,  36.80;  iron,  7.02. 
Color,  dark  brown  to  black.  Hardness,  3  to  4.  Gravity,  3.5. 
Pound  in  limestone  in  New  York.     Rare. 

96  Howlite. —  A  silico-borate  of  lime.  Silica,  15.3;  boric 
acid,  44.0;  lime,  28.6.  Color,  white.  Hardness,  3.5  or  less. 
Gravity,  2.55.     Occurs  in  scales  in  gypsum  nodules. 

97  Lagfonite. —  Borate  of  iron.  Boric  acid,  48.5;  iron,  37.8. 
Color,  ochre  yellow,  occurring  as  an  incrustation.     Earthy. 

•  IS  Larderellite. — Borate  of  ammonium,  boric  acid,  69.2;  am- 
monia, 12.9.  Color,  very  light  white  to  yellow.  Occurs  in 
small  crystalline  plates.      Rare 

99  Colemanite. — Borate  of  lime.  One  of  the  most  important 
sources  of  borax  and  boric  acid  in  California.  Boric  acid, 
50.9;  lime,  27.2.  Colorless  to  milky  white,  yellowish  white, 
and  gray.  Transparent  to  translucent.  Hardness,  4  to  4.5. 
Specific  gravity,  2.417.  Crystals  monoclinic.  .Soluble  in  hot 
hydrochloric  acid,  with  separation  of  boric  acid  crystals  on 
cooling.  In  the  blowpipe  it  decrepitates,  exfoliates,  sinters, 
and  fuses  imperfectly,  coloring  the  flame  yellowish  green. 
Various  analyses  of  the  California  mineral  show  the  following: 

Boron  trioxide .. .   48.12         47-64        49-7°        5°-7°        49-59 

Lime 2s.  43        27.97        27-4^        27.31        27.38 

Water 22.20         22.79         22.26         21.87         22.68 

The  analyses  also  show  traces  of  aluminum,  iron,  silica,  and 
magnesia,  according  to  the   locality  from  which  the  samples 


come 


88  THE   SALINE    DEPOSITS   OK   CALIFORNIA. 

The  mineral  was  first  discovered  in  Death  Valley,  in  Inyo 
County,  in  October,  1882,  and  was  first  analyzed  by  Thomas 
Price,  of  San  Francisco,  in  March,  1883.  The  mineral  was 
named  in  honor  of  William  T.  Coleman,  of  San  Francisco,  who 
was  identified  with  the  borax  industry  from  its  beginning  in 
the  State. 

Occurs  in  beds  in  Inyo  County,  at  Monte  Blanco,  Furnace 
Creek,  Upper  Canon  beds,  and  Confidence  niter  beds ;  in  San 
Bernardino  County,  at  Calico  district,  Lower  Canon  niter 
beds,  Saratoga  niter  beds,  Owl  Springs  niter  beds,  and  Valley 
niter  beds;  in  Ventura  County,  at  the  Stauffer  mines,  and 
elsewhere. 

100  Priceite. — A  variety  of  Colemanite.  A  hydrous  borate  of 
lime.  Boric  acid,  48.7;  lime,  32.5;  water,  18.8.  A  soft,  chalky 
mineral  first  discovered  in  October,  1871,  by  Lieutenant 
A.  W.  Chase,  and  first  analyzed  by  Thomas  Price,  of  San 
Francisco.  Common  in  Death  Valley,  Inyo  County,  and  in 
the  playa  beds  of  Kern  and  San  Bernardino  counties. 

101  Pandermite. — A  variety  of  Priceite.  Dana  says  that  Priceite 
and  Pandermite  are  obviously  identical,  and  may  represent  a 
not  entirely  pure  variety  of  colemanite. 

102  Pinnoite. — A  hydrous  magnesium  borate.  Boric  acid,  42.6; 
magnesia,  24.4;  water,  33.0.  Usually  in  nodules,  with  radiated 
fibrous  structure.  Color,  sulphur  or  straw  yellow  to  pistachio 
green.     Hardness,  3  to  4.     Gravity,  3.27. 

103  Heintzite. — A  hydrous  borate  of  magnesium  and  potassium. 
Rare. 

104  Borax. — Native  borax  or  biborate  of  soda.  One  of  the 
main  sources  of  borax  in  the  State.  Boric  acid,  36.6;  soda, 
16.2;  water,  47.2.  Color,  white;  sometimes  grayish,  bluish,  or 
greenish.  Hardness,  2  to  2.5.  Specific  gravity,  1.69  to  1.72. 
Luster,  vitreous  to  resinous,  sometimes  earthy.  Translucent 
to  opaque.  Taste,  sweetish  alkaline,  feeble.  Soluble  in  water. 
In  blowpipe  fuses  to  "borax  glass." 

Known  also  as  Tincal.  The  purest  natural  crystals  ever 
discovered  were  those  from  the  Borax  Lake,  in  Lake  County, 
which  were  99.94  per  cent  pure.  The  celebrated  Searles  marsh 
in  San  Bernardino  County  had  large  transparent  crystals,  that 
inclosed  fluids  in  their  large  cavities.     Borax  in  a  pulverulent 


BORAX    MINERALS.  8(.» 

form  is  common  in  the  "marshes,"  "dry  Lakes,"  or  playa  lakes 
of  [nyo,  S.m  Bernardino,  Kern,  and  Riverside  counties. 

105  Tincalonite. —  A  pulverulent  and  efflorescent  variety  of 
borax,  containing  32  per  cent  of  water. 

I11'-  Ulexite. — A  hydrous  borate  of  sodium  and  lime.  A  valu- 
able source  of  borax  in  California  and  Nevada.  Boric  acid, 
43.0;  lime,  1. vs:  soda,  7.7:  water,  35.5.  Color,  white.  Taste- 
less. Hardness,  i.  Gravity,  [.65.  Occurs  usually  in  rounded 
masses,  loose  in  texture,  and  consisting  of  tine,  silky  fibers. 
I. <.<allv  known  to  the  miners  as  "cotton  balls, "  occurring  in 
rounded  concretions  from  the  size  of  a  pea  to-over  a  foot  in 
diameter. 

Synonyms:  Borate  of  lime,  tiza,  cotton  balls,  sheet  cotton, 
etc.  Found  as  "  sheet  cotton  "  at  Furnace  Creek,  Death  Valley, 
Inyo  County;  and  at  Desert  Springs,  Kern  County.  Found  as 
"cotton  halls"  at  Resting  Springs,  Tecopah,  Upper  Canon  Beds, 
Monte  Blanco,  and  Confidence  Beds,  in  Inyo  County;  and  at 
Searles  Lake,  Calico  District,  Owl  Springs  vSaratoga  Springs, 
Salt  Springs,  etc.,  in  San  Bernardino  County;  and  at  Mesquite 
Springs,  Kern  County. 

107         Hayesene. — <  >l>solete  name  for  ulexite. 

1|)S  Franklandite. — A  massive  variety  of  ulexite  with  fine 
fibrous  structure. 

109  Cryptomorphite. — A  variety  of  ulexite  occurring  in  dull, 
white  kernels.  Boric  acid,  59.10;  lime,  15.55;  soda,  5.61; 
water,  19.72. 

110  Bechilite. —  Hydrous  borate  of  lime.  Boric  acid,  51.14; 
lime,  20.85;  water,  26.25.  Occurs  in  crusts  as  a  deposit  from 
springs. 

111  Hydroboracite. — A.  borate  of  lime  and  magnesia.  Boric  acid, 
49.58;  lime,  13.52;  magnesia,  10.57;  water,  26.33.  Resembles 
fibrous  and  foliated  gypsum.  Hardness,  2.  Gravity,  1.9. 
Distinguished  from  gypsum  by  its  fusibility. 

112  Sassolite. — Boric  acid.  Native  boric  acid  is  common  in  the 
springs  of  the  State,  as  mentioned  elsewhere. 

113  Danburite. — This  is  a  silicate  of  lime,  containing  22  per 
cent  of  boric  acid.     It  was  discovered  in  dolomite  in  the  East, 


90  THE   SALINE    DEPOSITS   OF   CALIFORNIA. 

and   shows   the    wide   distribution    of   boric   acid   in   the   rock 
formations  of  the  earth. 

114  Datolite. — A  silicate  of  lime  containing  21  per  cent  of 
boric  acid.  Found  in  trap  rocks  and  may  be  one  of  the  sub- 
terranean sources  of  boric  acid  in  springs. 

115  Tourmaline. — The  tourmaline  series  of  minerals  all  contain 
from  3  to  10  per  cent  of  boric  acid,  and  may  be  one  of  the 
sources  from  which  the  springs  obtain  their  boric  acid. 

116  Axinite. — A  boro-silicate  of  lime  and  aluminum  found  in 
granites,  and  a  possible  source  of  boric  acid. 

It  will  be  seen  from  this  list  that  the  principal  sources  of 
borax  in  this  State  are  the  minerals  colemanite,  borax,  and 
ulexite. 

It  is  probable  that  many  others  of  the  minerals  given  exist 
in  the  California  fields,  but  have  not  yet  been  identified.  The 
presence  of  so  many  silicates,  and  of  magnesium,  indicates  the 
presence  of  niany  of  the  minerals  in  the  list  above.  A  number 
of  the  rarer  minerals  given,  such  as  szaibelyite,  warwickite, 
danburite,  etc.,  indicate  the  sources  from  which  the  hot  springs 
have  drawn  their  supplies  of  boric  acid. 

Silicoborates  of  lime  probably  exist  in  many  localities  as  yet 
unsuspected  by  the  prospector. 

Those  interested  in  the  composition  of  the  natural  borates 
and  borosilicates  will  find  much  information  in  a  paper  entitled 
"Analyses  of  Natural  Borates  and  Borosilicates,"  by  J.  E- 
Whitfield,  published  in  Bulletin  No.  42,  U.  S.  Geological 
Survey,  1889,  Washington,  1).  C. 


PART    III 


CARBONATES. 


117  "  NATURAL  SODA." 

Natural  soda  is  the  residue  obtained  by  the  evaporation  of 
the  waters  of  an  alkali  lake,  or  the  "sodas"  dug  up  from  the 
"dry  lakes"  of  the  desert.  It  is  composed  of  sodium  carbonate 
and  bicarbonate,  in  varying  proportions,  mixed  with  impurities, 
the  impurities  consisting  of  three  classes:  (ist)  When  mixed 
with  sodium  chloride  and  sulphate;  (2d)  with  sodium  chloride 
and  biborate;   (3d)  with  sodium  chloride  and  nitrate. 

The  first  class  is  known  locally  as  "soda,  or  salt,  beds,"  the 
second  as  "borax  beds,"  and  the  third  as  "niter  beds." 

Sodium  carbonate,  or  monocarbonate  (  Na2C08)i  i-s  an  opaque 
white  salt  of  a  specific  gravity  of  2.5.  From  its  solution  in 
water,  it  crystallizes  with  1,  2,  3,  5,  7,  10,  and  15  molecules  of 
water:  (1)  according  to  the  temperature  of  the  solution,  and 
(  2  )  according  to  its  exposure  to  the  air  while  cooling. 

The  natural  sodas  gathered  from  different  localities  vary 
widely  in  composition,  so  that  a  process  of  manufacture  devel- 
oped in  one  locality  and  yielding  there  a  cheap  and  pure 
product,  may  fail  completely  in  another  locality.  This  fact 
alone  removes  these  salines  from  the  list  of  "  poor  man's 
mines,"  as  they  require  extensive  plants,  technical  skill  of 
high  order,  and  ample  capital  to  be  successful. 

The  means  employed,  in  general,  are  solution,  evaporation, 
and  fractional  crystallization.  By  fractional  crystallization  is 
meant  a  methodical  stoppage  of  the  crystallizing  process  by 
removal  of  the  remaining  solution,  or  "mother  liquor,"  from 
the  "crop"  of  crystal  so  far  obtained,  a  close  watch  of  the 
temperature,  density,  and  composition  of  the  solutions  being 

(91) 


92  THE   SALINE    DEPOSITS   OF   CALIFORNIA. 

essential  to  success.  Those  interested  in  the  technology  of  the 
natural  sodas  are  referred  to  the  admirable  work  by  George 
Lunge,  Ph.D.,  entitled  "Sulphuric  Acid  and  Alkali,"  3  vols., 
London,  1SS0;  to  the  reports  of  Professor  Chatard,  in  Bulletin 
No.  60,  U.  S.  Geological  Survey,  Washington,  D.  C,  1887;  and 
to  "Mineral  Industries  of  the  United  States,"  Roth  well,  1898. 

118  Origin  of  Natural  Sodas. — Where  a  body  of  water  has  no 
outlet,  it  represents  a  simple  concentration  of  the  inflowing 
streams;  and  if  the  lake  contains  any  given  saline,  then  this 
saline  has  either  been  brought  as  such  into  the  basin,  or  it  is 
the  result,  or  product,  of  chemical  reactions  among  the  con- 
stituents of  the  lake  water.  If  the  saline  has  been  brought  in 
as  such,  it  is  a  product  leached  from  the  rocks  or  soils  of  the 
region,  no  matter  whether  the  waters  came  from  deep  fissure 
springs  or  from  surface  drainage. 

Springs  carrying  sodium  carbonate  are  so  numerous  that  to 
give  the  list  would  be  to  name  most  of  the  springs  of  the  State. 
The  sodium  carbonate  in  such  springs  comes  from  the 
decomposition  of  the  alkali-bearing  rocks  through  which  the 
water  flows;  and  this  decomposition  is  brought  about  by 
the  combined  action  of  air,  moisture,  heat,  and  pressure. 

The  salts  of  sodium  are  more  common  in  the  springs  and 
lakes  than  the  salts  of  potassium,  because  the  soda  minerals 
are  more  easily  decomposable,  and  because  soils  have  a  strong 
tendency  to  take  up  and  retain  potash  salts,  while  giving  up 
soda  salts  readily. 

The  hot  springs  so  common  along  the  Sierras,  the  evidences 
of  comparatively  recent  volcanic  action,  show  that  the  western 
rim  of  the  Great  Basin  has  been  the  scene  of  remarkable 
activity  in  rock  decomposition,  the  results  of  which  were 
leached  into  Lake  Aubury. 

Where  a  solution,  from  a  spring,  or  from  surface  leaching, 
that  contains  sodium  chloride,  sodium  sulphate,  and  sodium 
carbonate,  reaches  an  inclosed  basin  the  percentage  of  natural 
soda  will  increase,  the  reason  being  that  the  sulphate  is 
reduced  by  organic  matter,  and  the  carbonic  acid  in  the  atmos- 
phere reacts  upon  the  sulphide  formed.  Such  a  reaction 
requires  a  long  period  of  comparative  rest,  a  condition  met  in 
the  formation  of  all  the  playa  lakes  of  the  desert.  The  sub- 
sequent local  chemical  changes,  such  as  those  due  to  boric  acid 
coming  into  such  lakes,  have  already  been  noted. 


OWENS  LAKE,  INYO  COUNTY. 


SODA   WORKS    OWF.XS   I.AKK.    INYO  COUNTY. 


94  THE   SALINE    DEPOSITS   OF   CALIFORNIA. 

INYO  COUNTY. 

1H*  Owens  Lake. — The  most  important  source  of  natural  soda 
in  this  State  is  Owens  Lake,  both  on  account  of  its  magnitude 
and  of  the  facilities  there  for  carrying  on  extensive  operations. 
The  lake  lies  between  the  Sierra  Nevada  on  the  west  and  the 
Inyo  range  on  the  east,  and  has  no  outlet,  the  pass  to  the 
south  being  50  feet  higher  than  the  present  level  of  the  lake. 
Several  small  streams  from  the  Sierras  reach  the  lake,  but  the 
principal  source  of  supply  is  Owens  River,  which  is  about  30 
feet  wide,  2  feet  deep,  and  has  a  velocity  of  about  5  miles  per 
hour.  The  shores  are  extensive,  bare  sandy  flats,  with  areas 
covered  with  a  strong  growth  of  salt  grass. 

The  waters  of  the  lake  contain  large  quantities  of  an  "algous 
or  fungoid  plant,  floating  in  small  globular  masses  of  a  whitish 
or  yellowish  green,"  which  collects  in  patches  and  becomes 
black  from  clouds  of  "alkali  flies,"  or  ephydra.  In  addition 
to  the  larvae  of  the  flies,  the  water  swarms  with  the  small 
crustacean  Artemia  salina,  known  locally  as  the  "alkali 
shrimp." 

Owens  Lake  is  similar  in  its  geological  history  to  Mono 
Lake,  which  is  described  elsewhere  (see  page  98),  and  the  two 
lakes,  partially  evaporated,  are  object  lessons,  showing  the 
condition  that  Death  Valley  and  the  host  of  playa  lakes  of  the 
desert  were  once  in. 

The  phenomena  now  to  be  observed  at  either  lake  are  simi- 
lar to  what  primitive  man  might  have  seen  along  the  shores  of 
vSearles  Lake,  or  any  of  the  other  lakes  of  the  Great  Basin, 
when  they  were  partially  evaporated. 

Owens  Lake  has  at  the  present  time  no  outlet.  Its  ancient 
shore  lines,  190  feet  above  the  present  level,  indicate  that  it  at 
one  time  had  an  outlet  to  the  south,  and  joined  itself  to  the 
chain  of  lakes  formed  during  the  desiccation  of  Lake  Aubnry. 
The  lake  has  an  average  depth  of  about  40  feet,  and  an  area 
of  100  square  miles. 

The  waters  of  the  lake  are  strongly  saline,  the  principal 
minerals  being  chloride  of  sodium  and  carbonate  of  sodium, 
the  presence  of  the  large  amounts  of  carbonate  being  due  to 
the  volcanic  material  within  its  watershed. 

A  number  of  analyses,  more  or  less  complete,  have  been 
made  of  its  waters,  which  vary  according  to  the  conditions 
under  which  they  were  made.     The    diluting  of    the  waters 


CARBONATES— INYO   COUNTY.  '.T, 

after  storms  in  the  adjacent  mountains,  or  their  concentration 
at  the  end  of  a  hot  summer,  is  sufficient  to  explain  any  differ- 
ences in  the  analyses. 

One  of  the  earlier  analyses  was  the  one  made  by  Professor 
Phillips,  of  England,  which  was  as  follows: 

Grains 

Hum  chloride J|J 

Sodium  sulphate  '    /0 

Sodium  carbonate .      .  „  __.  . 

2,914..}  1 

Potassium  sulphate ,     ' 

Potassium  silicate. . 

I  ^Q    Z1 

Organic  matter ^'^ 

TIr-  following  analyses  are  comparatively  recent,  and  were 
both  nuuk-  by  members  of  the  U.  S.  Geological  Survey-  No  1 
being  by  T.  M.  Chatard,  and  No.  2  by  Oscar  Loew 


N".   1.  No.  2 

0-,-  Grains  per  Litre 

Silica 

Iron  and  alumina 

Calcium  carbonate 

Magnesium  carbonate 

Potassium  chloride 

Sodium  chloride  . . . 


0.220  0.1721 

.038  

•  055 
•479 

3-137  


■     29.415  23.2S30 

Sodium  sulphate II-o8o 

Sodium  carbonate 26.963  ^ 

Sodium  bicarbonate r  -2- 

Potassium  sulphate 6  j  s- 

Total....  --,,-,  c    ^ 

/ /i  12  03.6025 

Another  analysis  is  as  follows: 

Silica Percent. 

-  ,         .  ,'. 28 

iron,  alumina,  lime,  magnesia j 

Sodium  biborate  (borax  \ 

Potassium  chloride 

Sodium  chloride  (salt)  „Q'°I 

Sodium  sulphate 

Sodium  carbonate 
,  }j  95 

Sodium  bicarbonate 

7-4o 

V  "i. 00 

The  waters  also  contain  small  quantities  per  litre  of  lithium 
phosphoric  acid,  and  nitric  acid.     The  specific  gravity  is  1  051' 
Analyses  of  the  crude  soda  formed  by  solar  evaporation  and 


96 


THE    SAI.INK    DEPOSITS   OF   CALIFORNIA. 


fractional  crystallization  under  varying  conditions,  gave  Pro- 


fessor Chatard  the  following  results: 


Water  20.87  I4-5I 

Insoluble 1.55  .07 

Organic  silica,  alumina,  lime, 

and  magnesia .37  .09 

Potassium  chloride .51  1.07 

Sodium  chloride 3.51  7.44 

Sodium  sulphate 1.89  3.18 

Sodium  carbonate 40.87  43.75 

Sodium  bicarbonate 30.65  30.12 

Sodium  biborate   


4-33      3-43  '    2.24        11.03 


.09  .06 

1. 12  1. 14 

35.06  45-59 

25.44  26.70 

22.84  18.19 

10.53  4.06 


.06 

1. 21 

60.99 

19.01 

12.51 

3.88 


.18 

2-93 
19.16 

5-70 

55-°4 

4.09 

2.01 


100.22    100.23    99-41    99-1?    99-9°      100.14 


The  evaporation  of  these  waters  by  solar  heat  divides  them 
into  three  stages:  first,  the  deposition  of  a  comparatively  pure 
compound  of  carbonate  and  bicarbonate  of  soda  (see  analysis  1 ) ; 
second,  the  formation  of  a  product  consisting  in  great  part  of 
sulphates  and  chlorides  (analysis  5) ;  and,  third,  the  production 
of  a  mother  liquor  rich  in  carbonate  of  soda  (analysis  6),  but 
recpiiring  an  artificial  heat  for  its  further  evaporation.  This 
mother  liquor  contains  the  bulk  of  the  potash  and  the  boric 
acid  of  the  original  waters. 

From  the  analyses,  and  from  data  similar  to  that  quoted  in 
connection  with  Mono  Lake,  it  is  estimated  by  Oscar  Loew 
that  Owens  Lake  contains  22,000,000  tons  of  sodium  carbonate, 
8,000,000  tons  of  potassium  sulphate,  over  40,000,000  tons  of 
common  salt,  and  1,000,000  tons  of  borax.  The  borax  is,  how- 
ever, in  such  a  dilute  solution  that  no  means  are  known  at 
present  to  utilize  it. 

The  Reno  Development  Company  has  extensive  works  at 
Keeler,  on  the  eastern  shore  of  the  lake,  at  the  terminus  of  the 
railroad  from  Reno.  The  carbonate  of  soda  is  recovered  by 
pumping  the  waters  of  the  lake  into  clay  vats,  and  evaporating 
by  solar  heat  during  the  hot  summer  months.  At  the  high 
temperatures  of  the  summers  the  carbonate  and  bicarbonate  of 
soda  crystallize  out,  while  the  chloride  and  sulphate  of  soda 
remain  in  solution.  In  the  winter  these  crystallize  out  with 
the  carbonates,  giving  an  impure  product.  The  vat  area  of 
the  company  is  something   over  one  hundred   acres,  and  the 


SALINE  VALLEY,  INYO  COUNTY. 


SEARLE'S  BORAX   WORKS,  SEARLE'S  J.AKl..  SAN   BERNARDINO  COUNTY 


7— Bul.  24 


98  THE   SALINE    DEPOSITS    OF    CALIFORNIA. 

final  result  of  a  summer's  work  is  a  cake  of  soda   from  two  to 
four  inches  thick  over  the  surface  of  the  vats. 

This  product  is  a  compound  of  carbonate  and  bicarbonate 
of  sodium  with  its  water  of  crystallization.  It  is  shipped  in  its 
natural  form  to  the  borax  works,  and  used  to  produce  commer- 
cial borax  from  colemanite  (borate  of  lime),  or  is  calcined  to 
soda  ash  and  sold  to  glass  works  and  washing-soda  factories. 
Some  has  been  shipped  to  Japan,  where  it  met  with  a  most 
favorable  reception,  as  it  is  equal  to  the  best  English  soda  ash. 
The  reports  of  shipments  since  1893  are  as  follows: 

Tons.  Value. 

1894 1,530  $20,000 

1895 1,900       47,500 

1896 3,000        65,000 

1897 5,000  1 10,000 

1898 7,000  154,000 

1899 10,000  250,000 

1900  I.OOO        50,000 

MONO  COUNTY. 

120  Mono  Lake. — Is  situated  about  10  miles  south  of  Bodie,  on 
the  line  of  the  Bodie  &  Benton  Railroad,  at  an  elevation  of 
6730  feet;  the  highest  level  above  the  ocean  of  all  the  saline 
lakes  of  the  Great  Basin.  In  many  respects  it  is  the  most 
interesting  to  study  of  all  the  lakes  of  California. 

Its  location  and  appearance  are  unique  and  attractive,  for  it 
rests  upon  the  desert  plain  like  a  sheet  of  burnished  metal, 
with  the  desolation  and  solitude  of  a  Sahara  on  the  east,  and 
the  rugged  grandeur  of  the  Pyrenees  on  the  west.  The  lake 
is  now  roughly  circular  in  outline,  its  north  and  south  axis 
measuring  10  miles,  and  its  east  and  west  axis  14  miles;  it  is 
a  veritable  "dead  sea"  without  an  outlet. 

Its  area,  including  the  islands,  is  87  square  miles.  Its 
deepest  point,  at  the  south  end  of  Paoho  Island,  is  152  feet. 
the  average  depth  being  62  feet.  The  shore  phenomena 
exhibited  about  the  borders  of  Mono  and  Aurora  valleys,  in 
common  with  other  lakes,  consist  of  terraces,  with  their 
accompanying  sea-cliffs,  gravel  bars,  deltas,  etc.,  some  of  the 
ancient  terraces  being  672  feet  above  the  present  lake. 

To  adequately  describe  the  geological  history  of  this  one 
lake  would  require  a  large  volume,  and  it  must  suffice  here  to 
say  that  it  is  lacustral,  glacial,  and  volcanic.  While  its  gen- 
eral history  is  that  of  the  other  lakes  of  the  Great  Basin,  its 
local  phenomena  are  of  unusual  interest,  and  marked  with 
exceptional  clearness.     The  old  terraces,  showing  the  levels  of 


CARBONATES — MONO  COUNTY.  99 

its  waters  in  each  of  the  older  geologic  times,  are  elearlv 
visible  on  every  side.  The  carving  and  modeling  of  the  moun- 
tain sides,  by  the  huge  ice  plows  of  the  days  of  the  glaciers, 
give  studies  a^  fascinating  as  those  of  Mont  Blanc.  The 
streams  that  Bow  into  the  lake  all  flow  over,  or  through, 
volcanic  rocks;  while  the  islands  of  the  lake  are  themselves  of 
volcanic  origin,  showing  ancient  craters  and  active  hot  springs. 

121  Hot  Springs. — There  are  numerous  thermal   springs  around 

the  lake,  and  a  number  that  boil  up  from  the  bottom  of  the 
laked>ed.  The  submerged  springs  are  especially  noticeable 
near  Black  Point.  There  is  a  hot  spring  of  special  interest  on 
the  east  side  of  Paoho  Island;  and  there  are  also  fumaroles  on 
this  island  that  give  forth  vapors  that  have  a  temperature  of 
1500  F.  The  phenomena  of  hot  springs  and  fumaroles  indicate 
that  the  volcanic  energy  that  extracted  the  lavas  is  not  vet 
entirely  dissipated.  A  warm  spring  on  the  northeast  shore  of 
the  lake,  that  discharges  about  10  gallons  per  minute,  has  been 
analyzed  by  T.  M.  Chatard,  of  the  U.  S.  Geological  Survey, 
with  the  following  result: 

Temperature  between  So°  and  90'  F. 

Silica 5.S9 

Alumina 0.09 

Calcium 2.84 

Magnesium 2.92 

Potassium 3.05 

Sodium 29.56 

Sulphuric  acid 15.13 

Chlorine 10.98 

Oxygen 1.57 

This  analysis  shows  that  the  main  salines  in  the  spring 
water  are  salt  (sodium  chloride)  and  sodium  sulphate. 

One  of  the  minerals  of  interest,  to  science  rather  than  to 
commerce,  is  the  crystalline  variety  of  tufa,  known  as  thinolite, 
which,  so  far,  has  only  been  found  in  the  basin  of  Lake 
Lahontan,  and  is  abundant  at  Mono  Lake. 

The  waters  of  Mono  Lake  are  so  dense  and  alkaline  as  to  be 
as  deadly  to  the  thirsty  traveler  as  is  ocean  water.  One  of  the 
earlier  analyses  of  the  lake  water  was  made  by  I.  R.  Morph: 

Per  Cent. 

Sodium  chloride 5.8 

Potassium  chloride 1.5 

Calcium  chloride 2.6 

Magnesium  chloride 8.2 

Calcium  sulphate 4 

Boric  acid traces. 


100  THE   SA1.IX1-:    DEPOSITS   OF    CALIFORNIA. 

Another  author  gives  the  total  weight  of  the  solids  per 
gallon  as  2926  grains. 

The  analysis  of  Morph  is  incomplete  and  does  not  take  into 
account  the  carbonates,  the  most  valuable  constituents  of  the 
water.  The  concentration  of  surface  waters  by  evaporation 
produces,  in  general,  brines  of  two  characters;  in  one  class, 
sodium  chloride  predominates  over  all  the  other  salts;  in  the 
other  class,  alkaline  carbonates  are  abundant.  At  this  lake 
the  alkaline  carbonates  are  abundant  because  of  the  volcanic 
rocks  of  the  lake  basin,  as  shown  by  the  complete  analysis 
made  by  T.  M.  Chatard,  which  is  as  follows: 

Grams  per 

Litre 

Silica 0.0700 

Calcium  bicarbonate 0.0810 

Magnesium  bicarbonate 0.3349 

Potassium  cbloride 1.8342 

Sodium  chloride 1S.506S 

Sodium  sulphate 9.8690 

Sodium  carbonate 1S.6720 

Sodium  bicarbonate ...  3.9015 

Sodium  biborate 0.2000 

Alumina 0.0030 

55-4724 

a  total  of  53  grams  of  solids  per  litre,  nearly  35  per  cent  of  the 
total  solids  being  the  chloride  of  sodium,  and  over  40  per  cent 
being  the  carbonate  of  sodium. 

Experiments  on  the  fractional  crystallization  of  these  waters 
by  Professor  Chatard  gave  the  following  results,  showing  the 
same  general  rule  of  deposition  as  at  Owens  Lake.  The  waters 
experimented  upon  were  already  evaporated  to  about  one 
sixth  of  their  original  volume,  and  had  a  specific  gravity  of  1.2 10: 

12345 


Water 12.28  10.98 

Silica .07  .17 

Calcium  carbonate .05  .14 

Magnesium  carbonate .48  .46 

Potassium  chloride .69  .69 

Sodium  chloride 19.18  21.34 

Sodium  sulphate ■  2.73  14. iS 

Sodium  carbonate 36-87  41.07 

Sodium  bicarbonate 27.37  10.99 


.69 

4. IS 

II. 31 

.16 

■13 

•05 

.07 

.02 

.02 

•47 

•  71 

15.20 

29.96 

60.75 

32.36 

49-13 

16.22 

6.65 

18.27 

14.22 

3369 

10.03 

3.88 

■49 

99.72    100.02      99.78    100.03       99.85 


XRl'.o.NATl'.S — MONO   COUNTY.  101 

Mono  Lake  has  an  area  of  85.5  miles  and  an  average  depth 
[.5  feet.  Us  volume,  then,  is  5,365,816,000  cubic  yards,  or 
-  1  cubic  mile;  which  is  equivalent  to  1,083,755,500,000 
gallons  of  231  cubic  inches  each.  One  cubic  foot  equals  28.32 
litres;  each  litre  equals  [051.85  -rams;  a  pound  equals  4536 
-ranis;  and  an  acre  foot  equals  43.560  cubic  feet.  <  )n  this 
data,  and  from  another  analysis  which  closely  agrees  with  that 
of  Mr.  Chatard,  another  authority  of  the  CJ.  S.  Geological 
Survey  makes  the  following  calculation: 

,in<  'I'ou- 

per  Litre.  in  the  Lake. 

Silica    0.28  1,323,200 

Calcium  carbonate 0.6S  3,213,400 

Magnesium  carbonate    0.36  1.701,200 

Potassium  chloride 2.23  ^38,000 

Sodium  chloride   ...                  1S.22  86,099,600 

Sodium  sulphate                10.07  47,586,400 

Sodium  borate   0.20  945.: 

Sodium  carbonate 19.49  92,101,100 

Unaccounted  for 0.32  [,512,200 


Total 51-85  245,020,200 

The  total  weight  of  the  lake  is  4,725,557,000  tons  of  2000 
pounds  each. 

Such  figures,  by  acknowledged  authorities,  of  the  saline 
reserves  of  a  single  lake  that  has  not  yet  completely  evapo- 
rated, enable  one  to  see  that  the  saline  reserves  in  the  host  of 
completely  evaporated  or  playa  lakes  of  the  deserts  of  this 
State  are  beyond  computation,  and  are  practically  inexhaust- 
ible, even  when  transportation  facilities  have  been  developed 
to  the  highest  degree  of  perfection. 

122  Long-  Valley. —  Lies  southeast  of  Mono  Lake.  The  country 
is  highly  volcanic,  and  the  rocks  in  many  places  much  decom- 
posed and  coated  with  efflorescences  and  incrustations. 

There  are  many  warm  springs  the  waters  of  which  flow  into 
lakes.  The  numerous  soda  lakes  are  connected  together  dur- 
ing the  w<  -in.  and  drain  into  the  head  waters  of  Owens 
River.  The  shores  show  in  most  places  a  salt  crust  around 
the  margins,  but  are  difficult  of  access  on  account  of  the 
extensive  morasses  by  which  they  are  completely  surrounded: 
morasses  that  are  flooded  with  water  in  the  winter.  With 
facilities  for  transportation,  Long  Valley  could  be  made  to 
vield  a  considerable  amount  of  soda  annually. 


102  THE    SALINE    DEPOSITS   OF    CALIFORNIA. 

MINERALOGY. 

123  Dawsonite. — Carbonate  of  aluminum  and  sodium.  A  soft, 
white,  earthy  incrustation  in  volcanic  dike,  Amargosa  Canon, 
Inyo  County. 

124  Thermonatrite. — Hydrous  sodium  carbonate.  Carbon 
dioxide,  35.5;  soda,  50.0;  water,  14.5.  Color,  white,  grayish 
yellow.  Hardness,  1.  Gravity,  1.5.  Taste,  alkaline.  Com- 
mon as  an  efflorescence  in  Death  Valley;  and  at  the  playa 
lakes  of  the  deserts,  and  in  many  of  the  lakes  and  springs  of 
the  State. 

125  Natron. — Soda.  Soda  carbonate.  Carbon  dioxide,  15.4; 
soda,  21.7;  water,  62.9.  Common  in  the  springs  of  the  State; 
mixed  with  trona  or  thermonatrite  in  the  playa  lakes  and 
borax  lakes  of  the  State. 

126  Gay-Lussite. — Hydrous  carbonate  of  calcium  and  sodium. 
Calcium  carbonate,  33.8;  sodium  carbonate,  35.8;  water,  30.4. 
Color,  white  to  yellowish  white.  Hardness,  2  to  3.  Gravity, 
1.93.     Owl  Springs  niter  beds,  San  Bernardino  County. 

127  Trona. — Hydrous  carbonate  of  soda.  Carbon  dioxide, 
38.9;  soda,  41.2;  water,  19.9.  Color,  gray  or  yellowish  white. 
Hardness,  2.5  to  3.  Gravity,  1.93.  Taste,  alkaline.  Not 
altered  by  exposure  to  dry  atmosphere.  Soluble  in  water  and 
effervesces  with  acid. 

In  fine  crystals  at  Searles  Borax  Lake,  San  Bernardino 
County,  mixed  with  hanksite,  glauberite,  etc.  Formed  by  the 
spontaneous  evaporation  of  the  saline  waters  of  Owens  Lake, 
Inyo  County.  Extensive  deposits,  or  beds,  in  some  of  the 
playa  lakes  in  the  deserts  of  Kern,  Inyo,  San  Bernardino,  and 
Riverside  counties. 

128  Hydromag-nesite. — Basic  magnesium  carbonate.  Carbon 
dioxide,  36.3;  magnesia,  43.9;  water,  19.8.  Color,  white. 
Hardness,  3.5.  Gravity,  2.14.  Occurs  as  chalky  or  mealy 
crusts  in  some  spots  along  the  Amargosa  River  in  Inyo 
County. 

129  Bismutite. — A  basic  carbonate  of  bismuth.  White  to 
greenish  yellow.  Hardness,  4  to  4.5.  Gravity,  6.86.  Found 
in  gold  placers  on  Big  Pine  Creek,  Inyo  County. 


CARBONATES — MINERALOGY.  I"-'. 

130  Magnesite. — Magnesium  carbonate.  Carbon  dioxide,  ^.4; 
magnesia,  47. 6.     White,  gray  white  to  brown. 

Napa  County:    Cats  Hill. 

Santa  Clara  County:  Coyote  Creek,  2  miles  from  Madrone, 
in  a  large  deposit. 

Placer  County:  Gold  Run  and  Damascus  in  considerable 
quantities. 

Monterey  County:  Arroyo  Seco;  vein  2  feet  wide. 

Tulare  County:  Between  Four  Creeks  and  Moore  Creek, 
near  Yisalia.  in  solid  beds  of  massive  carbonate  of  magnesia 
106  feet  thick,  interstratified  with  talcose  slates  and  serpentine. 

Alameda  County:  Diablo  range,  30  miles  south  of  Mount 
Diablo;  beds  similar  to  the  Tulare. 


SAI/TON  SKA    RIVERSIDE  COUNTY, 


HOUSE  OP  ROCK  SALT.  DANBY  LAKE,  SAX  BERNARDINO  COUNTY. 


l'AKT     IY 


CIILORIDHS. 


li  SALT. 

Sodium  chloride  (NaCl),  or  "common  salt,"  contains  39.39 
per  cent  sodium  and  60.61  per  cent  chlorine. 

It  crystallizes  in  cubes  when  the  crystallization  occurs  on  the 
surface  of  the  vats,  the  crystals  uniting  in  the  well-known 
"  hopper  forms." 

The-  crystals  tunned  on  the  bottom  of  the  vats  are  generally 
incompletely  developed. 

California  stands  sixth  in  the  list  of  salt-prodncers  among 
the  States,  the  order  being  as  follows:  1,  Michigan;  2,  New 
York;  3,  Ohio;  4.  West  Virginia;  5,  Louisiana;  6,  California; 
followed  by  Utah,  Nevada,  Illinois,  Indiana,  Virginia,  Ken- 
tucky, etc. 

In  this  State  the  bright  sunshine  and  dry  atmosphere  give 
the  manufacturers  a  decided  advantage  over  those  of  the  East. 
Here  one  does  not  find  the  open  pans,  vacuum  pans,  kettles, 
and  grainers,  as  ^>lar  heat  alone  is  nsed,  except  to  a  very 
limited  degree.  In  one  county  only  is  artificial  heat  nsed  for 
refining  salt  for  table  and  dairy  use. 

The  standard  of  measure  in  California  is  the  short  ton;  and 
in  the  East  it  is  the  "  barrel  "  of  2S0  pounds,  or  5  bushels  of  56 
pounds  each,  so  that  the  ton  is  equivalent  to  -\  barrels. 

The  main  supply  of  salt  is  from  the  ocean  water  of  San 
Francisco  bay,  the  process  nsed  being  given  under  the  title  of 
"Alameda  County." 

Ocean  waters  carry,  on  the  average,  35.19  parts  per  thousand 

of  solid  matter  in  solution,  composed  as  follows: 

Chloride  of  sodium 77-758 

Chloride  of  magnesium   .           10.878 

Sulphate  of  magnesium         4-737 

Sulphate  of  calcium •  .  3.600 

Sulphate  of  potassium 2.465 

Bromide  of  magnesium •  •  0.221 

Carbonate  of  calcium 0.341 

100.000 

(105) 


]|,,;  THE   SALINE    DEPOSITS   OF   CALIFORNIA. 

According  to  locality,  the  shore  waters  may  vary  considerably 
in  character,  carrying  more  or  less  of  the  chloride  of  potassium, 
calcium,  barium,  or  ammonium;  traces  of  the  bromides  of  cal- 
cium and  sodium,  iodides  of  sodium  and  magnesium;  sulphate 
of  aluminum;  carbonates  of  sodium,  magnesium,  iron,  and 
manganese;  or  even  silicates,  phosphates,  and  organic  matter. 

The  origin  of  the  beds  and  veins  of  salt  will  be  found  under 
the  general  view  of  the  Great  Basin,  as  it  has  been  collecting 
for  ages  in  the  desert  lakes  that  had  no  outlet.  (See  titles 
"Chemical"  and  "Order  of  Deposits.")  Rock  salt  is  found  in 
beds  or  veins  below  the  bed  of  the  playa  lakes  and  in  the 
alternating  strata  of  the  terrace  deposits.  The  effect  of  the 
rapid  evaporation  on  the  desert  in  forming  new  crusts  is  noted 
under  the  titles  "Amargosa  River  Beds,"  "Searles  Lake,"  and 
"Salton  Sea."  The  chemical  impurities  due  to  drifting  sands 
are  noted  under  the  title  ".-Eolian  Sands." 

The  history  of  the  gathering  of  salt  dates  back  to  1848  and 
1849,  when  the  natives  gathered  solar  salt  from  the  natural 
reservoirs  along  the  San  Francisco  Bay.  In  1867  salt  works 
were  erected  at  San  Rafael,  in  Marin  County,  and  some  salt 
was  made.  In  1882  there  were  twenty-five  establishments  in 
the  State  with  $365,000  capital,  employing  an  average  of  1S4 
hands,  and  producing  884,443  bushels  of  salt,  worth  then  over 
Si 20,000.     The  progress  from  that  time  has  been  steady. 

While  consolidation  has  mainly  confined  the  production  of 
salt  to  the  counties  of  Alameda  and  Riverside,  there  are  enor- 
mous quantities  existing  elsewhere  which  only  await  the  com- 
ing of  favorable  conditions  in  transportation  to  enter  the  field 
of  commerce.  Xo  State  in  the  Union  has  larger  reserves  of 
salt  to  draw  from  in  the  future  than  has  California. 

MINERALOGY. 

The  list  of  mineral  chlorides  is  a  short  one,  and  only  Halite, 
or  common  salt,  is  found  in  commercial  quantities  in  the  State. 

132  Halite. — Common  salt;  rock  salt.  Chlorine,  39.4;  sodium, 
60.6  per  cent.     Common  in  many  of  the  counties  of  the  State. 

133  Sylvite. — Chloride  of  potassium.  Chlorine,  47.6;  potas- 
sium, 52.4  per  cent.  Transparent  when  pure.  Tastes  like 
common  salt.  Gives  violet  flame,  while  the  sodium  compound 
gives  yellow  flame,  under  a  blowpipe.  Found  in  traces  only 
in  some  of  the  springs  of  Inyo  County. 

134  Sal-ammoniac.  —  Chloride  of  ammonia.  Chlorine,  66.3; 
ammonium,  33.7  per  cent.  Occurs  as  an  efflorescence  at  some 
of  the  fissure,  or  volcanic,  springs  in  Death  Valley. 

135  Chloromagnesite. — Magnesium  chloride.  Saratoga  Springs, 
Death  Valley; 


CHLOR1  DES — STATISTICAL   TABLES. 


107 


i:;»; 


a 

o 

H 


11 

u 


3 

o 


■■j 

0 

= 

H 

5 

> 

— 

< 
- 

< 


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z 

3 

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H 

— 

:<: 

= 

0 

:- 

V 

a 

= 

O 

:- 


8   S   8  vo 

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co     o     -     t 


IOIOO        O        <N      CO       Tf     v£) 
P*       t^.ii       to      «      X       t-~      to 

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ui    -t    «     #    ui    t^  to"    * 

<N       i-        N        to      1/5      fO      1/5      N 

—  —  —  ^-  —  HHI-HfO 


0 


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o 


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CO     X 


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T     iO    vO      CO 


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tO 


co 


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nc 


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T 


30     CO     00 
X       X       X 


o     « 


tO 


io  \o     r-»  oo     on 


C^C^C^C^C^C^CTvC^C^C^ 


x     x    x 


X     CO     X     CO      X      X 


o     - 
5    o 

ON        CT> 


108 


THE    SALINE    DEPOSITS   OF    CALIFORNIA. 


137 


Salt  Imported  into  the  United  States. 

In  Bulk. 


In  Barrets,  Bags,  etc. 


Yl.Ak 


Tons 


1S67.. 
1868., 

1869. 
1870. 
187I  , 
1872 

IS73. 
i^74 
1875 
1876. 

■s77 

1878. 

1879. 

1880. 

1881. 

1882. 

1883. 

1884. 

1885. 

1 886. 

1887. 

18S8. 

1889. 

1890. 

1891. 

1892. 

1S93. 
1894. 

1895 


127,235 
154.223 
[48,691 

144,239 
141,996 
129,116 

"9.747 
179,186 

159,336 
165,633 
179,502 

176,054 

's7.643 
200,485 
206,221 
164,984 

156,455 
170,379 
175.638 
159,616 
i37,S87 
169,460 

9o,453 
86,305 
75.oi6 

75.399 

49,oiS 

3  '.396 
300 


Value. 


Tons. 


Total  Value. 


Value. 


5696,570 
915,546 
895,272 

797.194 

800,454 

788,  S93 

1,254,818 

1,452,161 
1,200,541 
1,153,480 

1,059,941 
1,062,995 
1,150,018 
1,180,082 

1,242,543 
1,086,932 

1,035,946 
1,093,628 
1,030,029 

966,993 
850,069 
620,425 
627,134 
575,26o 

492,144 
48S,io8 

35S.575 
206,229 

1,723 


"4,152 
109,987 
128.3S2 
174,888 

137,365 
128,818 
194,006  1 

213,647 
200,635 

189,739 
222,022 
207,406 
217,380 
224,871 
264,680 
199,550 
206,469 
220,806 
206,161 
183,310 
176,60s 

136.325 

117,249 

121,87s 

110,154 

100,683 

73,472 

50,762 

937 


$336,302 

365,456 
35I.I68 

507>74 
355.318 
312,596 

525,5S5 
649,838 

549, 1 1 1 
462,106 

532,S3i 
483,909 
532,706 

548,425 

65S,o6S 

474.230 
451,001 
433,827 
386,855 
371,000 
328,201 
246,022 
249,232 
252,848 
224,569 
196,371 
^3,404 
86,718 

1,874 


$ 


1896 
1S97 
1898 
1S99 
1900 


.Metric  Tons. 
239.334 

209,479 
169,786 
175,260 

i8S,595 


,032,872 
,281,004 
,246,440 
,305,068 

,155,772 
,101,462 
,780,403 
,001,999 
,749,652 
,6i5,5S6 
,592.77-" 
,546,904 
,682,724 

,728.507 

,900,611 
,561,162 

,486,947 
,527,455 
,416,887 

,337,993 
,178,270 

866.447 
876,366 
828,10s 
7,161,713 
684,479 
421.979 
292.947 
3-597 


Value. 
$696,197 
6ll,l66 
587.348 

5S7,io3 
633,192 


: 
u 


•J. 


110  THE   SALINE    DEPOSITS   OF   CALIFORNIA. 

138  Salt  Exported  from  the  United  States. 


1849  162,972 

1850  75.103 

1851  61,424 

1852 89,316 

1853 "9,729 

1854 159,026 

1855 156,879 

1856 3H,495 

1857 I90,699 

1858 162,650 

1859 212,710 

i860 129,717 

1861   144.046 

1862 228,109 

1863 277,838 

1864 296,088 

1865 358,109 

1866 3°o.  98° 


1867 $304,030 

1868 289,936 

1869 190,076 

1870 119.582 

1S71 47.H5 

1872 19,978 

1873 43-777 

1874 i5,7or 

1875  16,273 

1876 18,378 

1877 20,133 

1878  24,968 

1879 13,612 

1880 6,613 

1881 14,752 

1882  18,265 

1883 17.321 

1884 26,007 


1885 $26,4SS 

1886 29,586 

1887 27,177 

1888 32,9S6 

18S9 31,405 

1S90 30,079 

1891  23,771 

1892 28,399 

1893  38,375 

1894  46,780 

1895  30,939 

1896 14,947 

1897 10,189 

1898 4,751 

1899 9,85s 

1900 3,907 

1901 86,414 


139  ALAMEDA  COUNTY. 

The  recovery  of  salt  from  the  waters  of  San  Francisco  Bay, 
by  solar  evaporation,  is  one  of  the  leading  industries  of  the 
county.  Most  of  the  works  are  in  the  vicinity  of  Alvarado, 
Newark,  and  Mount  Eden,  011  the  east  side  of  the  bay,  at  the 
south  end.  As  early  as  184S  and  1849,  the  natives  gathered 
solar  salt  from  the  natural  reservoirs  that  were  left  along  the 
shores  of  the  bay,  when  the  tide  went  out.  This  salt  was. 
however,  of  inferior  quality. 

Originally  the  salt  ponds  were  simply  natural  lagoons  in  the 
marshy  coast  of  the  bay.  To-day  there  is  an  elaborate  system 
of  dikes  with  gates,  by  which  large  ponds  are  filled  at  high 
tide,  the  filling  generally  taking  place  once  a  month.  Some  of 
the  huge  ponds  and  vats  have  board  floors.  As  evaporation 
progresses,  the  water  is  drawn  from  one  vat  to  another  until 
it  is  sufficiently  concentrated  for  the  salt  to  crystallize  out. 

In  1862  John  Quigley  began  work  on  a  large  scale  at 
Alvarado,  or  Union  City,  and  by  1868  salt  works  extended 
from  San  Leandro  Creek  to  Centerville,  a  distance  of  15  miles, 
some  17,000  tons  being  produced  annually. 

Some  of  the  works  in  this  county  that  have  been  prominent 
in  the  production  of  salt  are  as  follows: 

American  Salt  Works. — 2  miles  west  of  Mount  Eden. 
1 2,000  tons  capacity. 


y. 
cfl 


V. 

u 


■I. 

■x 


112  THE    SALINE    DEPOSITS   OF    CALIFORNIA. 

ALVARADO  Salt  Works. — i'_>  miles  west  of  Alvarado. 
3,000  tons  capacity. 

BAUMBERGER's. — 2  '  .•  miles  southwest  of  Mount  Eden.  350 
tons  capacity. 

Carmen   Island  Salt  Works. — 4  miles  east  of  Alvarado. 

Crystal  Salt  Works. — i'j  miles  south  of  Alvarado;  also 
at  Newark. 

Cox's. — 2  miles  west  of  Mount  Eden.     Small. 

CHRISTENSEN,    P.   J. — Mount  Eden. 

COMET  Salt  Company.— Mount  Eden. 

DROSTE,  H. — Mount  Eden. 

HAYWARDS   I/UMBER   Company. — Haywards. 

Johnson,  A.   L. — Mount  Eden. 

MATHIESEN,    II. — San  Lorenzo. 

Mathiesen,  E.  P. — Mount  Eden. 

Madsen  Salt  Works. — Mount  Eden. 

Mount  Eden  Salt  Works. — Mount  Eden. 

Oakland  Salt  Works. — Alvarado. 

Oliver  &  Co.  Salt  Works. — Mount  Eden. 

Occidental  Salt  Works. — Alvarado. 

Olsen,   E. — Mount  Eden. 

NiELSON,   M. — Mount  Eden. 

Putnam,  W. — Alvarado. 

PESTDORF,  E.   C. — Mount  Eden. 

PESTDORF,   I). — Mount  Eden. 

PETERMAN,   H. — Mount  Eden. 

Peterman,  M. — Mount  Eden. 

Paradise  Salt  Works. — Mount  Eden. 

Rocky  Point  Salt  Works. — Mount  Eden. 

Tuckson,  J.   P. — Mount  Eden. 

Union   City. — 2  miles  west  of  Alvarado. 

Union  Pacific  Salt  Works. — 3  miles  west  of  Alvarado. 
15,000  tons  capacity. 

WiSBY. — 2  miles  southwest  of  Mount  Eden.  3,000  tons 
capacity. 

In  1900,  the  companies  located  on  the  tide  lands  around  San 
Francisco  Bay  entered  into  a  combination  to  secure  better 
market  conditions.  Since  the  contract  system  was  given  up, 
the  industry  has  been  demoralized  by  overproduction  and  low 
prices.  An  independent  company  was  organized  near  Alvarado, 
with  a  view  of  beginning  production  in  1901. 


WINDMILLS     SALT   WORKS    ALAMEDA  COUNTY. 


ARCHIMI  Dl  -  SCREW   WINDMILL— ALAMEDA   -ALT   WORKS.     USED  FOR 
PUMPING   BRINE  FROM  THE  TANKS 


8—  Bul.  24 


114  THE    SALINE    DEPOSITS   OF    CALIFORNIA. 

The  accompanying  photographs  give  a  general  view  of  the 
vats  and  principal  works  of  the  district.  One  of  the  unique 
features  of  this  field  is  the  use  of  windmills  fastened  to  an 
Archimedes  screw  for  raising  the  waters  from  one  vat  to 
another.  As  the  cost  of  the  entire  affair  is  only  about  S,v  <. 
they  have  proved  very  economical  for  these  low  lifts.  The 
establishment,  in  the  fall  of  1901,  of  chemical  works  near 
Mount  Eden  and  near  Alviso,  promises  to  give  new  interest 
to  these  fields. 

An  analysis  of  San  Francisco  Bay  salt,  made  by  F.  Gutzkow, 
June,  1880,  shows  that  the  salt  is  remarkably  pure,  being  99.4 
per  cent  pure  sodium  chloride. 

The  production  in  Alameda  County  since  [893  has  been  as 
follows: 

Tons.  Value. 

IS94  44,450  5125,125 

1895 43-8io  U4,575 

1896 55,026  122,810 

1897  64,353  139,830 

1S98 87,800  155,812 

1899 78,434  i37,o8S 

1900  64,718  158,674 

1901 114,450  324,i36 

140  COLUSA  COUNTY. 

In  1890,  the  Antelope  Crystal  Salt  Company  began  the 
manufacture  of  salt  at  the  brine  springs  on  the  Peterson  ranch, 
near  Sites;  but  for  some  time  only  a  few  tons  were  made  for 
local  use.  Salt  springs  are  found  in  the  ravines  in  the  foot- 
hills along  Antelope  Valley;  but  the  principal  source  of  the 
salt  is  a  small  lake,  of  about  25  acres,  that  is  located  on  the 
axis  of  an  anticlinal,  borings  through  the  bed  of  blue  clay 
giving  a  strong  brine  and  inflammable  gas.  The  brine  con- 
tains 1500  grains  of  salt  per  V.  S.  gallon,  and  2  grains  of  iodine. 

A  number  of  the  mineral  springs  of  the  county  carry  con- 
siderable salt  in  their  waters. 

The  production  has  been  as  follows: 


1S95 
1896 

1S97 
1 898 
1899. 

I  91  K  I 
I90I 


Tons. 

Value 

40 

<i,  „  1 

none. 

S 

l6o 

21 

439 

2 

300 

20 

80 

iS 

270 

SALT  PILES,  ALAMEDA  COUNTY. 


UNION  PACIFIC  SALT  WORKS.  ALAMEDA   COUNTY. 


116  Till-:    SALINE    DEPOSITS   OF    CALIFORNIA. 

141  INYO  COUNTY. 

Salt  is  abundant  in  nearly  every  valley,  and  along  nearly 
all  the  streams  of  this  county,  which  lies  wholly  within  the 
boundaries  of  the  Great  Basin,  and  which  includes  within  its 
boundaries  a  large  portion  of  Lake  Aubury. 

Large  quantities  of  salt  are  made  at  Owens  Lake,  and  in  the 
Saline  and  Salt  Wells  valleys,  but  records  are  not  accessible. 
A  large  share  of  the  "  nnapportioned '*  salt  given  in  the  pub- 
lished statistics  comes  from  this  county,  and  it  is  probable  that 
it  produces  from  5000  to  10,000  tons  a  year. 

142  Bennett's  Wells, — The  bottom  of  Death  Valley  opposite  and 
north  of  these  wells  is  one  huge  salt  marsh,  covering  several 
townships.  Some  salt  was  produced  here  several  years  ago, 
when  the  Eagle  Borax  Company  was  at  work;  but  nothing 
has  been  done  since. 

From  the  wells  to  the  month  of  Furnace  Creek,  the  valley  is 
one  long  salt  marsh,  too  soft  and  wet  for  one  to  cross  it  on  foot. 
In  some  places  the  deep  ooze  has  been  crnsted  over,  but  this 
crust  is  very  thin  and  treacherous,  as  a  rule,  and  no  bottom  can 
be  found  to  the  slime  below.  In  one  place,  the  crust  of  salt  and 
sand  has  been  found  thick  enough  to  hold  up  wagons,  and  here 
the  Borax  Company  made  its  road  for  crossing  the  bottom  of 
Death  Valley.  Where  the  road  crosses,  the  ragged,  twisted, 
and  jagged  salt  crust  resembles  ice  crushed  up  along  a  shore. 

This  unique  road,  eight  miles  long,  was  made  with  sledge- 
hammers, the  crust  being  beaten  smooth. 


'& 


143  Confidence  Beds, — The  old  Confidence  gold  mine,  situated 
just  east  of  the  Narrows,  where  the  Inyo  County  line  crosses 
Death  Valley,  has  given  a  name  to  the  district.  At  the  old 
mill  site,  in  the  bottom  of  Death  Valley,  a  well  was  sunk  some 
59  feet  deep,  passing  through  alternating  strata  of  sandstones 
and  salines.  The  water  was  so  strong  a  brine  that  it  could 
not  be  used  for  mining  purposes. 

The  whole  valley  between  the  mine  and  the  niter  beds  to 
the  west  is  saline  in  its  character;  and  wherever  any  water 
comes  to  the  surface  it  is  saturated  with  salt.  The  deposits 
here  cover  over  a  township. 

144  Furnace  Creek.— (See  "Borax.")  The  works  of  the  Green- 
land Salt  and  Borax  Company  were  located  a  couple  of  miles 


CRYSTALLIZING  VATS    SALT  WORKS,  ALAMEDA  COUNTY 


GATHERING   SALT   FROM  THE  VATS.  ALAMEDA   COUNTY 


118  THE    SAI.INK    DEPOSITS   OF    CALIFORNIA. 

north  of  the  mouth  of  Furnace  Creek.  Its  road  lay  along 
the  east  side  of  Death  Valley  for  several  miles,  and  then 
crossed  over  to  the  springs.  As  the  bottom  of  Death  Valley 
is  really  one  vast  salt  marsh,  and  in  most  places  so  soft  and 
slimy  that  no  one  can  cross  it  on  foot,  it  was  a  serious  problem 
how  to  get  a  road  across.  Finally  a  place  was  found  where 
the  salt  and  sand  formed  a  crust  strong  enough  to  hold  up  a 
team,  and  this  was  leveled  off  for  the  distance  of  the  eight 
miles  necessary  to  cross  the  valley. 

This  road,  probably  the  only  one  of  its  kind  in  the  world, 
shows  better  than  anything  else  the  quantity  of  salt  in  the 
valley. 

North  of  Furnace  Creek  the  valley  is  white  with  salt  that 
covers  over  two  townships.  Much  of  this  salt  is  hue  and  pure, 
being  of  much  better  quality  than  along  the  edges,  where  it  is 
mixed  with  borax,  etc. 

145  Owens  Lake. — While  the  waters  of  Owens  Lake  contain 
large  quantities  of  salt,  associated  with  carbonate  of  soda,  and 
salt  has  been  made  there,  no  statistics  of  the  amounts  remain. 
(vSee  "Carbonates"  for  description  of  the  lake.) 

146  Saline  Valley. — Extensive  deposits  of  pure  rock  salt  were 
discovered  in  this  valley  in  1864,  and  the  mineral  has  been 
used  locally,  but  not  shipped.  Salt  springs,  borax  beds,  and 
salt  beds  are  numerous  and  extensive;  but  lack  of  transporta- 
tion facilities  has  prohibited  nearly  all  development. 

147  Salt  Wells  Valley.— The  Salt  Wells  Borax  Company  in 
former  years  made  some  salt,  as  a  by-product,  at  its  borax 
works.  The  Inyo  County  extension  of  Searles  Lake  Valley  is 
richer  in  salt  than  the  San  Bernardino  portion,  while  the  borax 
is  almost  wholly  confined  to  the  southern  end  of  the  valley. 
(See  "Searles  Lake,"  under  "Borates.") 

148  Tecopah. — Wells  dug  in  the  playa  deposits  at  Tecopah  show 
strata  similar  in  character  to  those  of  the  well  at  the  Confidence 
mine.  This  playa  lake  at  the  head  of  Willow  Creek  is  but  a 
branch  of  the  Resting  Springs  lake.  The  alternating  strata 
are  rich  in  salt,  as  well  as  in  borax  and  soda  compounds.  (See 
"Niter.") 

149  Upper  Canon  Beds. — The  strata  of  the  niter  beds  in  the 
canon  of  the  Amargosa  contain  numerous  layers  rich  in  salt,. 


120  THE    SALINE    DEPOSITS   OF   CALIFORNIA. 

and  some  rock  salt.  It  is  probable  that  development  of  the 
field,  especially  by  borings,  will  show  that  the  heavy  veins  of 
rock  salt  found  lower  down  on  the  valley  also  exist  here,  near 
the  lower  gypsum  beds.     (See  "Niter.") 

150  Amargosa  River. — The  Amargosa  River  might  be  called  an 
artery  of  salt  running  through  the  desert,  so  saline  are  its 
waters  along  its  entire  conrse.  Where  it  widens  out  into  the 
large  playa  lake  at  Resting  Springs,  it  leaves  large  salt  fields,  as 
well  as  those  of  borax  and  niter.  Wherever  its  waters  rise  to 
the  surface,  they  form  brine  springs.  The  desert  for  many 
miles  on  either  side  of  the  course  of  the  river  is  dotted  with 
spots  and  patches  of  salt.  ( See  "Lake  Anbury."  under 
"Borates.) 

151  Springs. — To  give  a  list  of  the  springs  carrying  noticeable 
quantities  of  salt,  in  this  county,  would  be  to  name  nearly 
every  spring  in  the  desert  portions.  A  large  percentage  of 
them  are  strong  brines,  like  the  Castalian  Spring,  near  Owens 
Lake,  which  carries  1840  grains  of  salt  per  gallon.  (See 
"Desert  Springs.") 

KERN  COUNTY. 

152  Cameron  Lake. — At  the  east  end  of  Tehachapi  Pass  is  a  salt 
lake  about  one  mile  square,  where  the  saline  stratum  is  from 
5  to  6  feet  deep.  At  times  the  lake-bed  is  covered  with  a  shal- 
low sheet  of  water  that  is  a  saturated  solution  of  salt,  muddy 
from  the  fine  clay  held  in  suspension.  During  the  summer 
season  the  water  nearly  all  disappears,  leaving  a  salt  crust 
from  3  to  4  inches  thick.  From  200  to  300  tons  a  year  are 
gathered  by  the  simple  process  of  raking.  The  salt  is  of  good 
quality,  running  from  92  to  98  per  cent  pure.  Xo  statistics  of 
the  yield  of  this  lake  seem  to  have  been  kept  in  the  past. 

A  number  of  salt  wells  give  the  name  of  Salt  Wells  Valley 
to  a  considerable  area  of  land  in  the  northeast  corner  of  the 
county. 

Casteca  Lake,  at  the  head  of  the  Canada  de  las  Uvas,  is  a 
shallow  playa  lake  that  in  dry  seasons  is  covered  by  a  thick 
crust  of  salt,  left  by  the  evaporating  waters.  The  country 
from  the  Kern  River  to  the  Canada  de  las  Uvas  is  in  fact  an 
alkaline  desert,  where  the- soil  is  heavily  impregnated  with 
salt,  and  at  one  point,  about  fourteen  miles  from  the  canon  of 


CAR  FOR  LOADING  SALT    SALTON,  RIVERSIDE  COUNTY 


SALT  WORKS    REDONDO,  LOS  ANGELES  COUNTY. 


122  THE   SALINE    DEPOSITS   OF   CALIFORNIA. 

the  Canada  River,  works  were  erected  some  years  ago,  and 
some  salt  made  by  lixiviation  and  crystallization.  Salt  is  found 
in  large  quantities  in  the  playa  lakes  at  Buekhorn,  Indian,  and 
Mesquite  springs.     (See  "Borates.") 

153  LOS  ANGELES  COUNTY. 

Salt  works  were  erected  some  years  ago  at  Redondo,  on  a 
small  lagoon  about  halt  a  mile  north  of  town.  The  waters  of 
the  lagoon  contain  a  strong  brine,  but  the  work  of  making  salt 
was  interrupted  first  by  one  misfortune,  and  then  another. 
The  works  were  equipped  with  considerable  machinery,  that 
was  taken  down  and  removed  in  the  fall  of  1901;  and  the 
present  operations  are  confined  to  vat  work  and  solar  evapora- 
tion on  a  small  scale. 

At  the  City  of  Los  Angeles,  the  New  Liverpool  Salt  Com- 
pany has  a  branch  of  its  Salton  works,  for  preparing  the  finer 
grades  of  salt. ' 

154  MONO  COUNTY. 

Mono  Lake  is  rich  in  salt,  as  well  as  in  soda  carbonate. 
(  h\ing  to  its  distance  from  commercial  centers,  but  little  salt 
has  been  made  here,  except  for  local  use.  The  lake  is  described 
under  the  head  of  "Carbonates." 

155  RIVERSIDE   COUNTY. 

"Salton  Sea"  is  a  name  familiar  to  every  one  in  the  West. 
By  a  few,  it  has  been  misnamed  "Death  Valley,"  owing  to  the 
confusion  arising  from  its  position  in  the  Colorado  Desert,  from 
its  extreme  heat,  and  from  the  fact  that  it  is  below  sea-level. 
Death  Valley  proper  lies  mainly  in  Inyo  County,  extending 
southward  about  20  miles,  into  San  Bernardino  County,  in  the 
Mojave  Desert. 

Salton  Sea  means  the  depression  lying  to  the  west  and  south 
of  the  Southern  Pacific  Railroad.  It  is  about  27  miles  long, 
and  from  3 '  _•  to  9  miles  wide,  embracing  an  area  of  about  156 
square  miles,  and  is  280  feet  below  sea-level  at  its  lowest  point. 

It  receives  the  drainage  of  some  8000  to  9000  square  miles  of 
desert  country.  Especially  high  floods  on  the  Colorado  River 
have  reached  Salton  by  New  River  and  Salton  or  East  River. 
1  See  "Lake  Le  Conte.") 

The  town  of  .Salton  is  situated  on  the  Southern  Pacific  Rail- 


• 


*#t~w*: 


1'l.c  i\\     \ T  WORK,  SALTON. 


I.OADIXC  CARS    SAINTON. 


1_' !  THE    SALINE    DEPOSITS   OF    CALIFORNIA. 

road,  70  miles  west  of  Yuma,  or  1S0  miles  east  of  Los  Angeles. 
The  elevation  is  265  feet  below  sea-level,  the  lowest  elevation 
of  any  town  in  the  Union. 

The  New  Liverpool  vSalt  Company  began  work  on  the  salt 
beds  of  Salton  Sea  in  1884,  producing  some  1500  tons.  Since 
then,  progress  has  been  rapid.  As  solar  heat  alone  is  neces- 
sary in  the  desert,  the  mill  plant  consists  only  of  machinery 
for  grinding  and  bagging  the  salt  for  shipment. 

Salton  Sea  has  been  written  upon  repeatedly  in  magazines 
and  newspapers,  so  that  it  is  a  familiar  name  to  all.  As  one 
approaches  the  lake,  "it  looks  like  an  immense  crystal  lake, 
and  the  houses  and  sheds  of  the  salt  works  appear  to  be  sus- 
pended in  the  air,  as  in  mirage.  As  far  as  the  eye  can  see  the 
white  and  dazzling  field  of  salt  extends  toward  the  horizon." 

The  sight  at  the  salt  works  is  an  interesting  one,  for  thou- 
sands of  tons  are  piled  up  like  huge  snow  drifts,  and  a  large 
force  of  men  is  busy  in  preparing  and  packing,  ready  for 
market,  salt  of  all  grades  and  kinds.  The  workmen  are 
Indians,  belonging  to  the  Coahuilla  tribe,  and  are  large,  well- 
developed  men,  who  are  not  affected  by  the  dazzling  sunlight, 
and  who  are  able  to  work  ten  hours  a  day  with  the  thermometer 
registering  1500  in  the  sun.  The  Indians  operate  cable  plows, 
that  cut  salt  furrows  8  feet  wide  and  6  inches  deep,  each  plow 
harvesting  over  700  tons  of  pure  salt  per  day.  A  portable 
railroad  conveys  the  salt  to  the  works. 

The  lake  is  constantly  being  supplied  by  numerous  springs 
in  the  adjacent  foothills,  which  flow  into  the  basin  and  quickly 
evaporate,  leaving  deposits  of  very  pure  salt  that  vary  from  10 
to  20  inches  in  thickness. 

Published  analyses  of  the  natural  crusts  from  Salton  show 

that  the  salt  is  naturally  remarkably  pure,  being  free  from  any 

noticeable  percentage  of  the  earthy  chlorides  and  sulphates: 

Sodium  chloride 

Sodium  sulphate        .... 

Calcium  sulphate , . . .         

Magnesium  sulphate        

Water 

[11  soluble    


94.68 

97-76 

.68 

.70 

•  77 

•33 

3.12 

•75 

.96 

.20 

100.00 

100.00 

This  salt  remains  dry  in  an  ordinary  atmosphere,  and  is  free 
from  organic  matter. 

The   terraces  of    Lake  Le  Conte    are   noticeable  evervwhere 


Mil. I.    \NI>  PILES  OF  SALT,  LOOKING  SOUTH     SALTON. 


mmmmmm 

MMIIMMiiMnmil'w 


THE  FLOODING  OF  SALTON  SEA. 


126  THE   SAI.IXK    DEPOSITS   OF   CALIFORNIA. 

along  the  foothills,  showing  the  different  levels  at  which  the 

lake  stood  in  recent  geological  times. 

Borings  made  at  Salton  give  the  following  strata: 

(i.)   Below  the  salt  crust  was  6  inches  of  mud  resting  on: 

(2.)   7   inches  of  a  crust  composed   of  chlorides  of  sodium 

and  magnesium. 

(3.)   22  feet  of  black  ooze  containing  50  per  cent  of  water, 

and  carrying  both  the  chlorides  and  carbonates  of  sodium  and 

magnesium. 

(4.)   The  rest  of  the  300  feet  of  the  boring  was  in  hard  clay, 

with  a  few  streaks  of  cement. 

156  SAN  BERNARDINO    COUNTY. 

San  Bernardino  County  produced  from  1000  to  3000  tons  of 
salt  for  several  years,  mainly  for  use  at  silver  mills;  but  that 
demand  having  ceased,  very  little  has  been  made  recently. 
The  supplies  of  salt  are  inexhaustible,  and  widely  distributed 
over  the  desert  portion  of  the  county. 

157  Amargosa  River  Beds. — The  Amargosa  River  emerges  from 
its  canon  a  short  distance  below  the  Lower  Canon  niter  beds, 
enters  the  southern  arm  of  Death  Valley,  and  thence  runs 
north  in  a  long  curve,  entering  Inyo  County  again  some  25 
miles  west  of  the  canon. 

Wherever  the  river  rises  to  the  surface  in  this  part  of  the 
valley,  the  water  is  a  strong  brine;  and  the  edges  of  the  stream 
are  white  with  the  saline  efflorescence,  or  heavy  with  a  crust  of 
salt  or  borax,  accordingto  locality.   (See  "Borax,"  "Xiter,"  etc.) 

158  Avawatz  Mountains  Rock  Salt. — In  the  strata  of  sediment- 
ary formations  underlying  the  Saratoga  niter  beds,  that  are  on 
the  north  flank  of  the  Avawatz  range,  south  of  the  Saratoga 
borax  flats,  there  are  a  number  of  strata  of  sand  that  are 
heavily  impregnated  with  salt,  which  is,  however,  too  impure 
to  be  of  value,  except  in  the  remote  future. 

At  the  east  end  of  the  field,  in  a  canon  near  the  Daggett 
road,  a  large  vein  of  rock  salt  outcrops.  This  vein,  or  bed,  of 
solid  rock  salt  (over  95  per  cent  pure  chloride  of  sodium)  is 
from  12  to  16  feet  thick.  It  is  tinged  to  brown  and  pink  from 
iron.  The  vein  outcrops  along  the  side  of  the  ravine  for  a 
distance  of  over  1500  feet,  and  is  both  overlaid  and  underlaid 
by  a  mixture  of  sand  and  salt  for  a  thickness  of  2  s  feet  above 


128  THE    SALINE    DEPOSITS   OF    CALIFORNIA. 

and  below.  Above  the  salt  are  strata  of  gypsum  and  sandstone, 
and  beds  of  sulphate  of  soda,  carbonate  of  soda,  nitrate  of 
soda,  etc.  This  bed  is  on  the  west  side  of  the  road  from  Dag- 
gett to  Death  Valley.  On  the  east  side  of  the  road,  and  about 
half  a  mile  from  it,  are  alternating  strata  of  sandstone,  gypsum, 
rock  salt,  salt  mixed  with  sand,  sulphate  of  soda,  etc.;  but  no 
vein  of  rock  salt  has  been  found  as  thick  and  pure  as  the  one 
on  the  south  side  of  the  road.  These  beds  were  discovered, 
and  the  salt  used,  many  years  ago  when  the  Ibex  and  Con- 
fidence mines  were  in  operation;  the  salt  was  used  to  a  limited 
extent  in  their  mills.      (See  "Niter.") 

159  Bitter  Springs. — These  salt  springs  are  located  on  the  south 
side  of  Soda  Lake  Mountains,  in  Township  13  North.  Range 
7  East,  S.  B.  M. 

160  Daggett. — A  few  miles  from  Daggett  the  desert  is  underlaid 
by  extensive  beds  of  salt,  mixed  with  sand,  that  was  mined 
locally  to  some  extent  by  the  silver  miners  some  years  ago. 
vSalt  is  common  at  the  borax  beds  of  the  Calico  district,  already 
described. 

161  #Danby. — The  Surprise  salt  mines  are  located  about  25  miles 
southeast  of  Danby,  a  station  on  the  Santa  Fe  Railroad.  They 
are  located  in  the  bottom  of  a  dry  valley,  about  6  miles  from 
the  south  end  of  Old  Woman's  Mountain.  The  rock  salt  lies 
in  two  strata,  each  from  2  inches  to  8  feet  in  thickness, 
separated  from  each  other  by  a  thick  seam  of  claw  and  covered 
by  a  layer  of  sand  and  dust  that  is  from  a  few  inches  to  2  feet 
in  thickness.  The  salt  bed  has  been  developed  over  a  tract  of 
some  40  acres,  and  the  claims  of  the  locators  cover  over  800 
acres.  For  some  time  this  deposit  was  worked  by  the  Crystal 
Salt  Company,  who  hauled  the  salt  to  Danby  in  traction 
wagons.  The  larger  portion  of  the  product  was  sold  to  the 
silver  mills  for  nse  in  chloridizing.  Some  of  this  salt  has  been 
shipped  to  San  Francisco,  and  proved  to  be  of  superior  quality. 

In  [882,  J.  B.  Cook  is  said  to  have  dug  a  shaft  35  feet  deep 
in  solid  roL-k  salt,  before  water  was  reached.  A  65-foot  shaft, 
now  caved  in,  is  said  to  have  shown  22  feet  of  solid  crystal  salt. 
An  analysis  of  the  clear  rock  salt  gave:  Sodium  chloride,  98 
percent:  water,  1.3  per  cent;  and  traces  of  silica,  iron,  alumi- 
num, potassium,  and  calcium.      A   small   spring  of  good  water 


Skin 


» 


D]  SERT  WAGONS— LOCOMOBILE    TRAINS  USED  AT  DANBY  SALT  MINES 
ON   MOJAVE  DESERT,  SAN   BERNARDINO  COUNTY. 


A  VEIN  OP  SOLID  ROCK  SALT.  SARATOGA   DISTRICT,  SAN 
BERNARDINO  COUNTY. 


9— BUL.    24 


130  THE    SALINE    DEPOSITS   OF    CALIFORNIA. 

exists  3 '  j  miles  from  the  lake,  while  a  large  spring  is  situated 
[:3  miles  distant. 

162  Lower  Canon  Beds. —  Large  quantities  of  salt,  associated 
with  other  salines,  are  found  at  the  Lower  Canon  niter  beds, 
and  some  of  the  alternating  strata  of  the  beds  are  largely  salt 

and  sand. 

163  Mojave  River. — This  river,  traversing  the  desert  throughout 
its  course,  is  naturally  saline,  but  not  so  much  so  as  the 
Amargosa.  Salt  may  be  observed  in  patches,  or  as  an  efflo- 
rescence all  along  its  course. 

164  Mojave  Sink,  or  Soda  Lake. — The  depression  where  the 
Mojave  River  disappears  beneath  the  sands  of  the  desert 
is  known  both  as  "Mojave  Sink"  and  as  "Soda  Lake," 
appearing  on  some  maps  under  one  name,  and  on  other  maps 
by  the  other  name.  The  waters  of  the  lake  during  the  wet 
season  have  been  found  to  vary  all  the  way  from  282  parts  of 
solids  in  100,000  to  a  saturated  solution.  In  the  dry  season 
the  greater  portion  of  the  depression  is  covered  by  a  heavy 
crust  of  salt,  rich  in  carbonate  of  soda  and  sulphate  of  lime, 
the  proportions  being  as  follows: 

Sodium  chloride 60.5 

Sodium  sulphate 22.5 

Calcium  sulphate 7-5 

Magnesium  sulphate 3.0 

( >rganic  matter 6.5 


HI!    I.,    I 


The  crust  also  contains  traces  of  silica,  phosphoric  acid, 
potassium,  and  lithia.  The  area  of  the  basin  is  about  20  miles 
long  by  4  miles  wide,  or  So  square  miles.  No  attempt  has 
ever  been  made  to  utilize  these  deposits. 

165  Owl  Springs. — Salt  is  found  in  many  of  the  strata  at  the 
(  )\vl  Springs  niter  beds,  as  described  elsewhere  in  this  bulletin. 

166  Salt  Springs.— The  Salt  Springs  are  located  on  the  South 
Fork  of  the  Amargosa  River,  at  the  east  edge  of  Death  Valley. 
These  springs  have  been  known  for  years,  as  the  old  Salt  Lake 
road  ran  by  them.  The  springs  boil  out  in  large  volume  in 
the  short  canon  of  the  South  Pork,  but  the  waters  quickly 
disappear  beneath  the  sands  of   Death  Valley.     This  canon  is 


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132  THE   SALINE    DEPOSITS   OE   CALIFORNIA. 

of  interest,  as  the  river  here  cuts  through  the  narrow  and  low- 
divide  that  separates  the  watersheds  of  the  Amargosa  and 
Mojave  rivers;  it  marks  the  place  where  the  evaporating 
waters  of  Death  Valley  once  joined  those  of  Mojave  Lake, 
showing  clearly  one  of  the  shore  lines  of  the  still  older  Lake 
Anbury.  The  waters  of  the  springs  are  strongly  saline,  and 
the  sandstones  of  the  cafion  carry  a  considerable  percentage 
of  salt.  These  springs  are  at  the  west  edge  of  the  large 
playa  lake  known  as  the  Salt  Springs  niter  beds,  described 
elsewhere. 

167  Saratoga  Borax  Beds. — The  character  of  the  bottom  of  Death 
Valley  along  the  Amargosa  River,  and  in  the  borax  beds 
around  Saratoga  Springs,  has  already  been  described,  and  it  is 
only  necessary  to  mention  here  that  the  borax  beds  in  the 
valley  at  this  point  carry  from  8  to  20  per  cent  of  salt. 
Stretching  for  miles  below  the  borax  flats,  the  bottom  of  the 
valley  is  white  with  salt  crust,  making  the  total  quantity  run 
to  enormous  amounts. 

168  Searles  Lake. — The  basin  known  as  Searles  Borax  Lake  has 
large  quantities  of  salt  crust  covering  the  flats  for  miles  north 
of  and  around  the  borax  flats.  The  borax  beds  themselves 
carry  from  10  to  12  per  cent  of  salt.  The  northern  extension 
of  this  lake  is  known  in  Inyo  County  as  Salt  Wells  Valley 
(which  see).     (See  also  "Searles  Lake.") 

169  Soda  Spring:. — This  is  a  spring  on  the  west  edge  of  the  Sink 
of  the  Mojave,  in  Township  12  North,  Range  8  East,  S.  B.  M. 
The  waters  are  strongly  saline  and  carry  salt,  sulphate  of  soda, 
and  sulphate  of  magnesia. 

170  Valley  Spring's. — These  springs  rise  in  the  bottom  of  Death 
Valley,  about  half  way  between  Saratoga  Springs  and  the  old 
Confidence  mine,  in  Township  19  North,  Range  5  East,  S.  B.  M. 
(  unsurveyed).  The  springs  are  probably  nothing  more  than 
the  Amargosa  River  coming  to  the  surface,  as  there  is  evidently 
a  rock  reef  extending  across  the  valley  half  a  mile  below  the 
springs.  The  volume  of  water  that  gushes  forth  also  corrobo- 
rates this  view.  The  brine  is  very  strong,  the  total  solids 
being  4422.25  grains  in  a  I'.  S.  gallon  of  the  water. 


CHLORIDES — SAN    DIEGO   COUNTY.  133 

An  analysis  made  by  Thomas  Price,  of  San  Francisco,  is  as 

follows: 

per  Gallon. 

Sodium  chloride  [840.72 

3    liuni  carbonate  [724.U 

Sodium  sulphate  ...                            ■•■■     651.02 

Sodium  sulphide  ■  ■  •           46.34 

Potassium  chloride  ■••          I32-3° 

Silica 14-28 

Organic  matter.  i3-4s 

Traces  of  magnesia,  lime,  bromine,  iron,  boric  acid,  phosphoric  acid. 

The  valley  on  each  side  of  the  springs  is  white  with  salt 
crust.  The  alternating  strata  of  the  Valley  niter  beds,  which 
join  these  springs,  carry  strata  of  sand  that  is  heavily  impreg- 
nated with  salt  and  sulphate  <>t"  soda,  too  impure,  however,  to 
he  of  commercial  value  for  years  to  come. 

171  Willard's  Wells.— These  are  brackish  saline  wells  on  the 
edge  of  a  large  playa  lake,  about  15  miles  cast  of  Johannes- 
burg. The  road  from  Johannesburg  to  (Granite  Wells  skirts 
the  north  shore  of  the  lake.  Like  most  of  the  play  as,  the  bed 
of  the  old  lake  is  strong  with  salt,  and  the  shore  is  marked  b> 
the  white  crnsts. 

Manv  other  desert  springs  might  be  mentioned  as  saline  in 
this  desert,  in  fact  most  of  those  whose  location  is  given  under 
the  title  of  "  Playa  Lakes."     (See  list  of  "Desert  Springs.") 

SAN  DIEGO  COUNTY. 

172  Coronado —Salt  is  being  made  at  the  south  end  of  San  Diego 
Bay,  about  \2  miles  from  Coronado.  The  works  are  owned  by 
E.  S.   Babcock,  the  proprietor  of  the  Coronado  Hotel.     Solar 

evaporation  only  is  used,  and   the  works  are  similar  in  charac- 
ter to  those  along  the  bay  near  San  Francisco. 

173  Oceanside.— The  California  Salt  Company  has  started  salt- 
making  at  its  points  in  this  county,  utilizing  as  the  source  of 
brine  old  lagoons,  or  "sloughs,"  that  empty  into  the  ocean. 
These  lagoons  are  dry  most  of  the  year,  and  the  brine  is  secured 
from  wells  from  30  to  50  feet  deep.  At  the  company's  Carlsbad 
plant,  some  >  15,000  or  more  was  spent  in  1 901  in  installing  a 
gasoline  engine  pumping  plant,  and  the  construction  of  about 
five    acres  of    vats.     These  vats,  constructed    with    plow  and 


134  THE   SALINE    DEPOSITS   OF   CALIFORNIA. 

scraper,  are  so  arranged  as  to  empty  by  gravity  from  the  upper 
to  the  lower  vats.  A  Hue  of  sluice-boxes  distributes  the  brine 
from  the  pumps.  As  shown  in  the  photographs,  the  wells  are 
hitched  tandem  to  the  one  pump.  The  company  has  had 
difficulty  in  preventing  seepage  from  the  vats,  and  has  not  as 
yet  put  any  salt  on  the  market.  Its  lease  at  Carlsbad  covers 
250  acres. 

At  La  Costa,  about  seven  miles  south  of  Carlsbad,  the  com- 
pany has  about  25  acres  of  vats,  but  no  other  plant.  It  is  the 
intention  to  put  in  a  steam  plant  at  this  point.  At  Kelly's 
Slough  the  company  also  has  250  acres  of  land,  unimproved  at 
present. 

174  Sweetwater. — As  early  as  1872  salt  was  made  in  the  Sweet- 
water Creek  near  National  City,  and  in  the  Ota}-,  but  nothing 
has  been  done  there  for  a  number  of  years. 

175  IN  GENERAL. 

Salt  is  widely  distributed  through  the  State  in  small  marshes, 
saline  lakes,  playa  lakes,  and  especially  in  springs.  The  presence 
of  salt  in  the  numerous  marshes  and  playa  lakes  has  already 
been  mentioned  under  the  head  of  "Borates,"  with  which  the 
chloride  of  sodium  is  usually  associated. 

In  the  following  memoranda,  the  quantity  of  salt  is  given  from 
published  analyses,  and  the  amount  present  is  given  in  grains 
per  U.  S.  gallon  of  231  cubic  inches,  except  where  especially 
stated  to  the  contrary.     The  list  is  necessarily  incomplete: 

Calaveras  County. — Salt  springs  on  the  Mokelumne  River, 
6  miles  south  of  Silver  Lake. 

Contra  Costa  County. — Alhambra  Mineral  Springs;  399 
grains. 

Humboldt  County. — Eureka  Springs,  at  the  edge  of  the  bay; 
1403  grains. 

Lake  County. — Allen  Spring;  23  grains. 
Borax  Lake;  20  per  cent  of  the  solids  is  salt. 
Lake  Hachinhama;  S  per  cent  of  the  solids  is  salt. 
Hot  Borate  Spring,  Clear  Lake;  86  grains. 
Howard  Spring;   101  grains. 
Siegler  Spring;  30  grains. 


SALT  WORKS  NEAR  OCEANSIDE    SAN  DIEGO  COUNTY.    SIX  50-FOOT  WELLS 

CONNECTED  WITH  ONE  PUMP  l-'iK   DRAWING   BRINE 

PROM  THE  LAGOON  TO  THE  VATS. 


PUMPING  PLANT,  OCEANSIDE  SALT  WORKS    SAN  DIEGO  COUNTY. 


136  THE   SALINE    DEPOSITS  OF   CALIFORNIA. 

See  "  Register  of  Mines  and  Minerals  of  Lake  County,"  by- 
California  vState  Mining  Bureau,  for  analyses  of  these  springs. 

Los  Angeles  County. — Large  salt  springs  are  found  14  miles 
from  the  City  of  Los  Angeles,  but  no  analysis  or  description  is 
available  to  date. 

Mendocino  County, — Salt  is  reported  as  present  in  several 
places  in  the  county. 

Napa  County. — -Etna  Springs;  28  grains. 

Calistoga  Springs;  23  grains. 

White  Sulphur  Springs;   21  to  23  grains. 

Placer  County. — Salt  springs  are  reported  as  existing  near 
the  Clipper  Gap  iron  mine. 

San  Benito  County. — Anderson's  Springs;  54  grains. 

Santa  Clara  County. — Pacific  Congress  Springs;    1 19  grains. 

Alum  Spring;  90  grains. 

Azule  Spring;  86  grains. 

Blodgett  Spring,  near  Gilroy;   10  grains. 

New  Almaden  Spring. 

San  Luis  Obispo  County. — The  name  "Salinas"  was  given 
to  the  principal  river  of  this  county  on  account  of  the  numerous 
saline  springs  that  are  found  all  along  its  banks  and  the  banks 
of  its  tributaries. 

Large  salt  springs  and  beds  of  rock  salt  are  found  at  the 
head  of  the  river.  Black  Lake,  one  half  mile  in  diameter, 
located  near  the  summit  of  the  San  Jose  Mountains,  is  a  lake 
of  strong  brine. 

The  Carrisa  Plains  is  a  dry  lake  five  miles  long,  and  from  a 
half  to  two  miles  wide.  It  is  covered  with  a  salt  crust  from 
six  inches  to  two  feet  thick.  .Salt  from  Black  Lake  and  from 
Carrisa  is  used  extensively  locally,  but  not  shipped. 

Among  the  numerous  springs  in  the  county,  the  following 
have  analyses  published:  At  El  Paso  del  Robles  is  the  Mud 
Spring,  with  from  83  to  96  grains;  the  Sulphur  Spring,  25  to 
27  grains;  Soda  Spring,  25  grains;  Garden  Spring,  20  grains; 
Sand  Spring,  92  grains;  White  Sulphur  Spring,  31  grains;  Iron 
Spring,  23  grains;  and  Congress  Spring,  1 19  grains. 

At  San  Luis  Obispo  is  the  Sycamore  Spring,  carrying  9  per 
cent. 


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1-"'"s  THE   SALINE    DEPOSITS   OF    CALIFORNIA. 

Shasta  County. — Salt  was  formerly  made  on  Salt  or  Stinking 
Creek,  12  miles  east  of  Redding,  from  a  sandstone  that  is 
strongly  impregnated  with  salines. 

Siskiyou  County. — A  well  near  Yreka,  675  feet  deep,  flows 
a  strong  brine,  which  is  used  for  local  demands. 

Solano  County. — Tolenas  Spring;  215  grains. 

Sonoma  County. — Santa  Rosa  Spring:    5  grains. 

Skaggs;   5.9  grains. 

White  Sulphur  Spring;  3.4  grains. 

Tehama  County. — The  Tuscan  Springs,  described  under 
"Borates." 

Little  Salt  Creek. 


PART   V 


NITRATES 


!76  IN  GENERAL. 

Common  usage  applies  the  term  "niter"  to  the  nitrate  of 
sodium,  which  is  also  called  "cubic  saltpeter,"  and  "Chili  salt- 
peter," to  distinguish  it  from  the  word  "  saltpeter,"  which  in 

common  usage  means  only  the  nitrate  of  potassium.  Niter,  or 
"nitrate  of  soda."  when  pure  contains  63.5  percent  of  nitro- 
gen pentoxide  and  36.5  per  cent  of  sodium. 

Native  niter  occurs  in  the  Caucasus,  in  Daghestan,  and  in 
the  trans-Caspian  provinces  of  Russia,  but  is  only  exploited  on 
a  small  scale  for  local  wants.  Nitrate  deposits  have  been 
reported  as  discovered  in  South  Africa,  but  the  report  has  not 
been  confirmed.  Niter  has  been  found  in  California  recently 
in  quantities  that  promise  t<>  rival  those  of  the  famous  beds  of 

Chili. 

Niter  has  been  made,  in  the  manufactories,  for  years  from 
various  soda  compounds;  but  the  sole  source  of  the  native 
material  has  been  the  deserts  of  Chili,  and  is  the  main  industry 
of  that  country.  In  [892  the  nitrate  industry  in  Chili  supplied 
more  than  half  the  exports,  and  paid  to  the  national  treasury 
of  that  country  over  S20.000.000  (silver)  in  export  duties. 

NITER  IN  CHILL 

177  LOCATION. 

The  niter  districts  of  Chili  lie  from  [5  to  35  miles  inland  from 

the  Pacific  coast.  They  start  in  the  north  at  Hazpampa,  15 
miles  east  of  Pisagua;  thence  south  to  Lagunas  85  miles, 
parallel  to  the  coast;  then  occurs  a  break  of  60  miles:  then 
niter  again  into  the  district  of  Tocopilla;  thence  to  Taltal. 

The  line  of  nitrate  deposits  lies  at  the  junction  of  the  plain 
and  coast  line  of  hills,  occurring  in  a  narrow  band  following 
the  east  foot  of  the  coast  hills,  at  an  elevation  of  from  3000  to 

(139) 


14D  THE    SALINE    DEPOSITS   OF    CALIFORNIA. 

4000  feet.  The  best  and  most  important  deposits  are  found  in 
the  province  of  Tarapaca,  on  the  west  skirts  of  the  plain  of 
Tamarugal.  This  plain  slopes  westward  from  the  Andes  to 
the  coast  range,  and  has  a  width  of  from  30  to  40  miles,  and  a 
length  of  about  150  miles  north  and  south,  resembling  in  its 
general  appearance  the  desert  of  the  Mojave.  Darwin,  in 
"A  Naturalist's  Voyage,"  calls  it  "an  ancient  sea  bed."  The 
line  of  the  nitrate  deposits  lies  at  the  west  edge  of  this  ancient 
sea,  but  the  line  is  often  interrupted  by  deposits  of  other 
salines  such  as  borax,  soda,  etc.;  the  same  as  in  the  beds  of 
Inyo  and  San  Bernardino  counties,  California.  To  quote  the 
official  descriptions:  "The  principal  deposits  of  nitrate  of  soda 
are  on  the  sides  of  some  of  the  ravines,  and  in  some  of  the 
hollows  of  the  mountains  in  the  district  of  Tarapaca."  "The 
nitrate  grounds  vary  in  breadth,  the  average  being  about  500 
yards."  "  There  have  been  single  yards  that  have  produced 
nearly  a  ton  of  nitpate."  "The  analysis  given  runs  from  6  to 
64  per  cent." 

The  crude  nitrate  of  soda  is  called  "caliche,"  and  this  caliche 
lies  in  beds  from  6  inches  to  12  feet  thick,  underneath  a  cover- 
ing of  conglomerate,  or  hard  porphyritic  cement,  that  is  from 
1  to  18  feet  thick,  and  must  be  removed  in  order  to  reach  the 
caliche.  This  first  layer  of  hard  rock  is  called  "costra,"  and  it 
also  carries  niter  running  from  5  to  20  per  cent. 

The  standard  of  purity,  or  basis  on  which  sales  are  made  in 
Chili,  is  95  per  cent  of  nitrate  of  soda  in  the  refined  crystals. 
The  impurities  that  have  to  be  dealt  with  are  mentioned  else- 
where. 

Sales  of  the  nitrate  are  almost  wholly  effected  in  Valparaiso 
by  a  few  large  houses  which  export  for  themselves,  or  which 
act  as  agents  for  dealers  in  Europe  and  in  the  United  States. 
It  is  claimed  that  the  agents  at  Valparaiso  try  to  keep  the 
price  of  nitrates  at  Iquique,  Tocopilla,  Autofagasta,  Aguas 
Blanco,  Taltal,  Junin,  etc.,  as  low  as  possible,  so  that  prices 
there  do  not  properly  represent  the  value  of  the  article  in 
commerce. 
1 78  HISTORICAL. 

The  discovery  of  nitrates  in  South  America  dates  from  1821, 
at  which  time  these  beds  belonged  to  Peru.  The  first  ship- 
ment t<>  Europe  took  place  in  1830,  at  which  time  the  crude 
nitrate  was  worth  11  cents  per  kilogram  (2.2  pounds),  or 
about  5  cents  per  pound. 


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142  THE    SALINE    DEPOSITS    OF    CALIFORNIA. 

From  1830  to  1878,  the  period  during  which  they  were 
occupied  by  Peru,  the  beds  yielded  a  total  of  3,891,664  metric 
tons;  one  metric  ton  being  2204.6  pounds,  or  .9842  ton  of  2240 
pounds. 

The  methods  of  purifying  the  caliche  remained  very  crude 
for  a  long  time,  the  caliche  being  boiled  in  small  copper 
pans  of  native  manufacture,  as  late  as  1845;  but  at  this  date 
the  exports  did  not  amount  to  over  6000  tons  a  year.  In  1855 
the  industry  had  grown  so  that  thirty-seven  different 
"officinas,"  or  niter  works,  were  in  operation.  Since  1X69 
more  modern  machinery  has  been  slowly  introduced,  and  the 
process  of  manufacture  advanced.  In  1884  the  first  combina- 
tion among  the  workers  was  formed,  but  it  lasted  only  three 
years.  Under  the  effect  of  the  combine,  the  price  in  September, 
1884,  was  from  S2.55  to  S2.95  per  100  pounds,  in  silver,  or 
from  Si. 60  to  Si. 85  in  gold.  In  1891  another  combination 
was  formed  that  lasted  until  1S93.  In  1892  there  were  nine- 
teen English  companies  in  the  field,  whose  capital  aggregated 
$27,575,000.  In  1S94  the  combine  was  broken,  and  all  efforts 
to  revive  it  failed  until  April,  1S96,  when  one  was  formed  that 
lasted  until  April,  1898.  In  October,  1S97,  it  is  reported  that 
thirty-one  out  of  eighty  niter  works  had  suspended  production. 
In  189S  it  was  claimed  that  the  presence  of  potassium  per- 
chlorate  in  the  Chili  niter  was  injurious  to  plant  life,  and 
injured  the  article  as  a  fertilizer,  and  that  it  also  injured  it 
for  making  gunpowder. 

A  long  and  fierce  controversy  was  held  over  the  matter, 
especially  in  Germany.  It  is  claimed  by  the  manufacturers  in 
Chili  that  the  presence  of  the  potassium  was  due  to  too  pro- 
longed evaporation  of  the  mother  liquors,  and  that  steps  were 
being  taken  to  obviate  the  difficulty. 

Perchlorate  of  potassium  is  always  present  in  the  mother 
liquors  at  the  Chili  works,  and  enters  the  niter  in  the  crystal- 
lizing vats  if  the  process  is  too  prolonged,  or  if  the  waters  are 
evaporated  to  a  certain  degree. 

The  experiments  at  Darmstadt  show  that  the  perchlorate 
occurs  in  Chili  niter  to  the  extent  of  0.14  to  1.65  per  cent. 

In  [898  over  thirty  of  the  eighty  works,  or  "officmas," 
remained  idle  on  account  of  overproduction,  and  in  the  same 
vear  niter  was  declared  contraband  of  war,  on  account  of  the 
Spanish- American  war.  In  October,  1900,  a  combine  was 
organized    among    the    producers,  with    a    five-year    contract. 


NITER    IN    CHILI.  143 

beginning  April  i.  [901;  the  allotment  for  1901  being  fixed  at 
1,41 7,233  long  tons. 

179  CHEMICAL. 

The  origin  of  the  Chili  deposits  is  discussed  at  Length  by 
Alberto  Plageman  in  a  paper  entitled  "Sobre  la  formacion 
jeolbjica  del  salitre  bajo  el  punto  de  vista  de  la  fermentacion 
quimica,"  published  in  the  "Boletin  de  la  Sociedad  Nacional 
de  Mineria." 

Two  theories  are  advanced,  both  lacking  evidence: 

(  est)  That  the  nitrate  is  the  residue  of  sea-weeds  accumu- 
lated on  prehistoric  sea-beaches. 

(j<1)  That  it  is  derived  from  the  decomposition  of  ancient 
guano  deposits.  In  Chili  the  bones,  feathers,  etc.,  of  birds,  are 
often  found  in  the  caliche,  giving  rise  to  this  theory. 

TIr-  generally  accepted  theories  among  the  chemists  are  that 
the  origin  of  niter  primarily  was  due  to  the  gradual  oxidation 
by  the  air  of  nitrogenous  organic  matter  in  contact  with  the 
alkali;  or  that  it  originates  from  the  oxidation  of  organic 
materials  and  ammonia,  accomplished  by  the  action  of  micro- 
scopic organisms  known  as  "nitrifying  germs." 

In  the  early  history  of  the  I  nited  States,  saltpeter  yards  or 
"plantations"  were  worked  on  the  Eastern  seaboard,  and  at 

that  time  they  underst 1  the  principle  of  germ  fermentation. 

for  in  preparing  a  new  yard  it  was  customary  to  "silt*'  it 
with  earth  from  an  old  yard  (by  mother-of-peter,  or  seed 
peter),  the  effect  if  not  the  reason  being  clearly  appreciated. 

The  most  favorable  condition  for  the  active  life  and  work 
of  these  organisms  is  a  porous  soil,  containing  plenty  of  vege- 
table <>r  animal  organic  matter,  together  with  sulphate  of  lime 
and  an  alkaline  base  (such  as  carbonate  of  soda,  lime,  etc.). 

The  rate  of  manufacture  will  then  be  greater  as  the  tem- 
perature is  higher. 

In  the  plains  of  Tamarugal  there  is  much  organic  matter,  .1-. 
well  as  salines.  In  the  Death  Valley  beds  there  is  a  large 
amount  of  organic  matter,  and  even  ammonia  minerals,  while 
some  of  the  springs  show  the  presence  of  ammonia.  In  Cali- 
fornia, as  in  Chili,  the  nitrates  may  be  the  concentrated 
fertility  of  thousands  of  square  miles  of  desert  watershed. 
Cloudbursts  and  mountain  floods  swamp  the  plains  of  Tama- 
rugal at  intervals  of  seven  or  eight  years,  as  similar  downpours 
do  the  basin  of  the  Amargosa  River;  and  it  is  the  absence  of 


Ill  THE    SALINE    DEPOSITS   OF    CALIFORNIA. 

rain   during  long  intervals  that  permits  the  accumulation  of 
the  deposits. 

It  is  generally  conceded  that  the  caliche  at  Ramirez,  in  the 
province  of  Tarapaca,  is  the  best  discovered  in  Chili,  and  its 
chemical  composition,  according  to  the  analysis  of  Mr.  R. 
Harvey,  A.M.,  I.  C.  K.,  is  as  follows: 

Sodium  nitrate 51.0 

Sodium  chloride 26.0 

Sodium  sulphate 6.0 

Magnesium  sulphate 3.0 

Insoluhles 14.0 

100.0 

Analyses  from   the   three   m  lin   districts,  according    to    Dr. 

Xewton,  are  as  follows: 

■  2  3 

Water 2.3        1.9        2.5 

Nitrate  of  soda 50.0  39.3  28.5 

Nitrate  of  potash 0.4  4.8  4.5 

Chloride  of  soda 35.2  26.9  21.9 

Sulphate  of  soda 5.2  2.5  2.7 

Sulphate  of  lime 2.7  3.0  5.0 

Sulphate  of  magnesium     5.0  4.5 

Phosphate  of  lime 0.3 

Iodate  of  potash o.  1  .... 

Iron,  Alumina 3.2  1.8  2.2 

Silica    10.4  14.4  27.4 

It  will  be  noticed  in  the  above  that  the  percentage  of  sodium 
chloride  (common  salt)  is  next  in  quantity  to  the  niter.  This 
is  the  case  also  in  the  California  beds — the  layers  that  are  rich 
in  niter  are  also  rich  in  salt. 

In  both  countries,  the  caliche  consists  of  nitrate  of  soda, 
with  a  large  percentage  of  salt,  sulphates  of  soda,  lime, 
magnesia,  etc. 

In  Chili,  as  in  California,  large  deposits  of  "salares,"  or 
salt  beds,  exist  in  conjunction  with  the  niter  beds.  In 
Chili  caliche  varies  from  6  to  60  per  cent  in  nitrates:  and  a 
"good  ground"  would  be  from  3  to  4  feet  thick  and  from  30  to 
45  per  cent  niter,  only  the  high  grades  being  worked  in  Chili. 

180  GEOLOGICAL. 

It  is  evident  that  niter  can  only  exist  in  nature  in  the  arid 
regions,  and  in  order  to  form  it  the  following  conditions  are 
necessary:  The  presence  of  alkalies  or  bases,  such  as  magnesia, 
soda,  lime,  etc.,  in  a  loose  and  porous  state  and  easily  permeable; 


NITER    IN    CHILI.  145 

moisture,  but  not  surcharged;  unimpeded  access  ol  air;  and 
the  presence  of  animal  and  vegetable  matter,  and  nitrifying 
germs.  As  will  be  seen  by  referring  t<>  the  conditions  under 
which  Lake  Anbury  evaporated,  as  mentioned  in  the  general 
description  of  the  C.reat  Basin,  the  conditions  were  most 
favorable  for  the  formation  of  niter  beds  in  what  is  now  known 
as  the  Death  Valley  region;  and  these  conditions  were  almost 
identical  with  those  under  which  the  sea  that  once  covered  the 
pampas  of  Chili  was  evaporated. 

A  genera]  section  of  the  Chili  beds  shows  the  following: 

list)  "Chuca,"  or  a  layer  of  loose  blown  dust  ( .Kolian 
sands)  a  lew  inches  thick. 

(2d)  "Costra,"  a  layer  of  very  hard  rock  from  i  to  18  feet 
thick.  This  costra  is  a  conglomerate  or  pudding-stone  in  most 
places,  and  in  others  it  is  porphyritic  in  character. 

(3d)  •'Caliche,"  or  crude  nitrate  of  soda,  the  niterd>earing 
strata  being  from  a  few  inches  to  10  or  12  feet  thick.  The 
caliche  yields  from  3  or  4  per  cent  up  to  60  per  cent  of  nitrate 
of  sodium;  over  21  per  cent  of  salt,  or  sodium  chloride;  and 
over  10  per  cent  of  silica  and  insolubles;  besides  small  per- 
centages of  potassium  compounds,  sodium  sulphate,  calcium 
sulphate  (gypsum),  calcium  phosphate,  magnesium  sulphate, 
and  the  iodates  of  potassium,  iron,  and  alumina. 

(4th)  Beneath  the  caliche  is  a  loose  gravelly  layer,  below 
which  no  nitrate  is  found. 

181  SIMILARITY  OF  CHILIAN  AND  CALIFORNIA  BEDS. 

Some  of  the  points  of  similarity  between  the  beds  of  niter 
in  California  and  those  in  Chili  may  be  summarized  as  follows: 

1.  Roth  occur  only  in  the  typical  hot,  rainless  desert  portions 
of  their  countries. 

2.  Both  occur  in  beds  where  the  niter  is  associated  with 
gypsum,  common  salt,  glauber  salt,  sulphate  of  magnesia,  etc. 

3.  Loth  are  found  on  the  mar-ins  of  dried-up  sea  bottoms,  or 
the  residuum  of  evaporated  oceans. 

4.  The  Chili  beds  occur  "on  the  sides  of  ravines,  and  in  the 
hollows  of  the  foothills,"  and  "along  the  edge  of  the  foothills." 
Those  of  Death  Valley  are  found  in  ravines,  in  the  hollows  of 
the  foothills,  and  in  the  old  terraces  that  marked  the  former 
shores  of  Lake  Anlmry. 

5.  The  deposits  of  niter  are  interrupted  in  both  countries  by 
deposits  of  salt,  borax,  borate  of  lime,  soda,  etc. 

6.  The  niter  beds  of  Chili  are  described  as  varying  in  breadth, 
10— Bui..  24 


146  THE   SALIXK    DEPOSITS    OF    CALIFORNIA. 

the  "average  being  1500  feet,"  and  also  as  varying  in  thick- 
ness. In  California  the  beds  run  from  1500  feet  to  over  2  miles 
in  width,  and  from  3  to  over  6  miles  in  length. 

7.  In  both  Chili  and  California  the  caliche  varies  widely  in 
depth,  even  in  spots  close  to  each  other,  running  from  a  few- 
inches  to  several  feet. 

8.  In  both  countries  "spots"  are   found  that   are  very  pure. 

9.  In  Chili  the  beds  are  covered  with  a  crust  called  costra. 
that  is  very  hard.  This  costra  is  composed  of  the  debris  of 
earthy  matters  cemented  together  into  a  conglomerate  that 
contains  sand,  salt,  gypsum,  and  other  salines.  In  California 
the  beds  have  a  costra  of  sand,  salt,  gypsum,  etc.;  it  is  not  hard 
but  soft,  so  soft  and  friable,  in  fact,  that  one  sinks  into  it  to 
his  ankles.  In  Chili  the  costra  has  to  be  blasted,  while  in 
California  it  could  be  removed  with  a  scraper. 

10.  In  both  lands  there  are  often  layers  of  boric  acid 
compounds. 

11.  The  colors  of  the  caliche  in  Chili  are  yellow,  pink,  and 
green.  The  creamy  yellow  is  the  main  characteristic  of  the 
California  beds,  but  the  pink  and  green  are  also  present. 

12.  Xo  niter  strata  are  found  below  the  caliche  in  Chili, 
while  in  California  nitrates  have  been  found  in  more  than  one 
of  the  alternating  strata  of  the  terraces. 

13.  In  Chili  the  only  nitrate  found  in  commercial  quantities 
is  the  caliche,  or  nitrate  of  sodium.  In  the  California  beds, 
other  nitrates  have  been  found,  as  well  as  the  nitrate  of  sodium, 
that  promise  to  be  of  commercial  importance.  These  are  now 
being  investigated. 

14.  In  brief,  the  niter  of  both  countries  was  formed  under 
the  same  geological  conditions  and  on  the  same  huge  scale. 
The  chemistry  of  each  is  practically  the  same.  In  both 
countries  the  niter  is  a  peculiar  and  unique  product  of  their 
great  desert  regions. 

182  MINING  NITER  IN  CHILL 

In  describing  the  "mining  and  milling"  of  the  nitrates  in 
Chili,  it  is  convenient  to  use  the  terms  used  there.  In  the 
Spanish  a  nitrate  factory  is  called  an  "officina";  the  crude 
nitrate  as  dug  out  of  the  earth  is  called  "caliche":  the  deposits 
themselves  are  known  as  "  calicheros  ";  the  refined  nitrate  is 
called  "salitre,"  while  the  manufacturer  is  known  as  the 
"salitrero." 


NITER    IN    CHILL  147 

In  order  to  remove  the  costra,  the  native  Laborers  use  a  sharp 
crowbar,  with  which  they  chum  a  small  round  hole  down 
through  the  hard  conglomerate.  If  the  costra  is  thick,  the  hole 
is  made  large  enough  to  permit  the  lowering  of  a  small  boy,  who 
ops  out  a  recess  at  the  bottom  in  the  soft  caliche.  Tins 
recess  is  filled  with  a  slow  blasting  powder  made  locally.  The 
explosion  shatters  the  ground  for  a  radius  of  souk-  ^o  feet. 
A  series  of  holes  forms  a  Long  trench.  The  shattered  costra 
is  then  removed,  and  the  caliche  extracted  and  broken  by 
sledges  and  steel  wedges  into  blocks  that  weigh  about  30 
pounds  each.  The  caliche  is  hauled  in  rude  carts  to  the 
officina,  or  works,  for  treatment.  In  clearing  the  trench,  the 
costra  is  thrown  hack  as  the  caliche  is  removed  forward.  If, 
in  one  boring  through  the  costra,  the  caliche  is  found  to  he  of 
lower  grade  than  desired,  the  hole  is  abandoned  and  a  new 
spot  selected. 

The  wages  paid  to  the  laborers,  on  the  gold  basis,  are  as  fol- 
lows: Day  laborer,  5. 90  to  si.  10;  shaft  sinkers,  $1.25  to  51.50; 
carpenters.  Si. 50;  blacksmiths,  $2.00;  firemen,  $1.50.  They 
work  from  6  a.,  m.  to  6  i\  M.,  less  one  hour  for  noon.  The 
climatic  conditions  under  which  the  laborers  work  are  not  as 
good  as  those  of  the  desert  regions  of  this  State.  Every 
officina  has  its  own  stores,  and  supplies  the  laborer  with  every- 
thing he  has.  all  the  wages  returning  through  the  stores. 
The  water-supply  of  the  Chili  desert  is  not  as  good  as  in  the 
California  field. 

183  MANUFACTURING  PROCESS  IN  CHILI. 

At  most  of  the  works  the  processes  and  plants  are  crude. 
At  the  large  factories,  the  process  is  as  follows:  The  30-pound 
blocks  of  caliche  are  first  crushed  into  two-inch  cubes,  which 
are  then  taken  by  small  cars  to  the  twelve  tanks.  The  caliche 
is  boiled  by  steam  at  60  pounds,  until  the  "caldo"  (soup) 
stands  at  a  temperature  of  2400  F..  and  at  a  density  of  iioc  by 
the  Twaddell  hydrometer.  It  is  then  settled,  and  the  clear 
solution  of  nitrate  runs  into  crystallizing  tanks.  The  "ripios," 
or  refuse,  in  the  boiling  tanks  is  washed  with  well  water,  and 
this  water  is  used  again  as  a  mother  liquor  for  dissolving  more 
caliche.  The  washed  refuse  is  dropped  through  doors  in  the 
bottoms  of  the  tanks  and  goes  to  the  dump. 

After  the  nitrate  solution  is  cooled  and  has  crystallized,  the 
"agua  vieja."  or   mother  liquor,  is  run  to  a  well,  for  use  again 


148  THE   SALINE    DEPOSITS   OF   CALIFORNIA. 

in  the  boiling  tanks.  When  the  nitrate  crystals  taken  from 
the  crystallizing  tanks  have  drained  fairly  dry,  they  are  shov- 
eled onto  drying-boards,  where  the  tropical  sun  of  the  desert 
soon  dries  them  thoroughly.  They  are  then  sacked  for  ship- 
ment. The  dried  crystals  contain  from  95  to  96  per  cent  of 
nitrate  of  sodium. 

Most  of  the  works  ship  by  way  of  the  port  of  [quique. 

One  of  the  largest  nitrate  works  in  the  world  is  the  Officina 
Ramirez,  which  has  a  capacity  of  200  tons  per  day.  The 
plant  contains  six  steel  boilers,  each  30  feet  long  by  6  |  _.  feet 
in  diameter;  twelve  iron  tanks,  each  32  feet  long  by  6  feet 
wide  and  9  feet  deep;  ninety  crystallizing  tanks;  two  feeding 
tanks;  a  rive-compartment  washing  tank;  three  extra  circular 
tanks,  25  feet  in  diameter  by  1 2  feet  deep.  The  crystallizing 
tanks  are  16  feet  square  and  3  feet  deep.  For  bringing  the 
caliche  to  the  mill  they  use  two  six-ton  locomotives;  eighty 
side-dip,  one-ton  cars;  and  have  two  and  a  half  miles  of  porta- 
ble railroad  track.  They  also  use  about  thirty  mules  and  five 
carts. 

The  process  at  this  officina  consists  in  boiling  the  caliche 
at  50  pounds  steam  pressure  in  the  tanks  that  are  connected 
in  a  series  of  six.  The  liquor  in  the  boiling  tanks  is  called 
"caldo,"  literally  "soup,"  and  is  run  off  at  108°  to  no°  Twad- 
dell.  It  then  contains  about  80  pounds  of  soda  nitrate  per 
cubic  foot,  depositing  40  pounds  of  it  in  cooling  to  250  in  the 
open  tanks.  The  mother  liquor  is  treated  with  bisulphite  of 
soda  to  precipitate  the  iodine,  which  amounts  to  two  grams 
per  litre.  After  this,  the  mother  liquor  is  sent  to  a  well,  to  be 
pumped  up  and  used  over  again.  The  work  is  carried  on  day 
and  night,  arc  lights  being  used. 

There  are  works  at  Autofagasta  that  rival  the  Ramirez  in  size, 
and  which  work  on  caliche  that  rarely  runs  above  20  per  cent 
nitrate,  while  the  Ramirez  has  a  50  per  cent  caliche.  The 
entire  cost  of  these  works  is  quoted  as  /~i  10,000,  or  about 
5550,000,  each.  Especially  heavy  and  expensive  foundations 
increase  the  cost  of  works  in  Chili,  to  protect  them  against 
damage  by  earthquake. 

In  spite  of  these  two  large  works,  the  work  in  general 
among  the  eighty  or  more  officinas  is  open  to  criticism,  as 
shown  by  Sir  William  Newton  in  a  lecture  before  the  British 
Association  on  September  18,  1896,  in  which  he  says: 

"In  twenty  years  there  has  been  but  little  real  improvement 


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150  THE   SALINE    DEPOSITS   OF   CALIFORNIA. 

or  economy  in  production.  The  style  of  working  which  was 
used  in  early  days  in  works  making  a  few  tons  a  week,  is  still 
employed  on  a  large  scale  in  establishments  making  250  tons 
per  day.  In  the  extraction  of  the  crude  material  expensive 
borings  are  made  by  hand,  at  a  distance  of  every  few  yards 
through  the  hard  costra.  Hoists  are  the  exception.  The 
caliche  is  still  carted  up  hill  over  loose  roads  in  carts  weighing 
40  hundredweight,  and  carrying  a  load  of  45  hundredweight. 
The  boiling  is  by  indirect  heat,  and  is  slow,  taking  from 
twelve  to  twenty-four  hours  per  charge,  and  goes  on  too 
quietly  to  properly  stir  the  muddy  residue;  so  that  residue  con- 
taining as  high  as  12  per  cent  of  nitrates  are  often  thrown 
away.  All  except  the  softest  caliche  analyzing  50  to  60  per 
cent  is  left  in  the  ground,  and  the  caliche  thought  properly 
boiled  while  the  residue  still  held  from  12  to  30  per  cent. 
*  *  *  The  supply  of  nitrates  is  not  enough  to  last  another 
century  at  the  present  rate  of  consumption." 

J.  F.  Campaua,  the  Chilian  Director  of  the  "  Delegacion 
fiscal  de  Salitreros,"  or  Bureau  of  Niter  Industries,  in  his  report 
to  the  Chilian  Minister  of  Finance  in  1897  estimated  the  total 
amount  of  available  nitrates  in  Chili  as  about  73,000,000  net 
tons,  which,  at  the  yearly  production  of  1,380,000  tons,  would 
be  wholly  exhausted  in  fifty-three  years,  or  only  half  as  long 
as  .Sir  William  Xewton  estimated.  The  allotment  of  the 
"Combine  "  for  1901  was,  however,  fixed  at  1,417,233  long  tons, 
instead  of  the  estimated  1,380,000  tons.  The  invention  of 
smokeless  powder,  and  the  extension  of  the  use  of  nitrates  in 
arts  and  manufactures,  show  that  the  demand  is  increasing 
faster  than  is  allowed  for  in  the  estimate  of  either  Xewton  or 
Campana.  By  referring  to  the  tables  of  exports  of  niter  from 
Chili  from  the  beginning  in  1830  to  the  present  year,  the  pro- 
duction is  as  follows: 

Tons. 

1830 8,340 

1840 12,000 

1850 20,000 

IS60 100,000 

IS70 182,000 

1880  226,090 

IS90  1,025,000 

1900 i,43I-I43 

At  this  rate  of  increase,  the  Chilian  fields  will  not  last  as 
long  even  as  Campaua  predicts. 


NITER    IN    CHILI.  151 

184  COST  OF  MANUFACTURE. 

The  fuel  employed  is  English  steam  coal,  preferably  "West 
Hartley"  or  "Orrell."  This  costs  at  an  officina  district  50 
miles  distant,  55  cents  per  quintal  of  100  pounds.  I  me  quintal 
of  coal  makes  about  five  quintals  of  nitrate,  01  500  pounds. 
The  export  duty  on  the  niter  is  si. 60  silver,  or  ;vsd.  per  metric 
quintal  of  i<><>  kilos,  or  207  pounds,  Spanish.  Freights  to  the 
United  States  amount  to  from  56.00  to  $6.50  per  ton,  gold. 

The  cost  of  producing  a  quintal  (  ioo  pounds)  of  niter  is 
given  by  Alberto  Plagemann  as  follows: 

Extraction  of  caliche 27  to  59 

Carting 12  to  23 

Concentration 32  to  49 

General  costs 7  to  1 2 

Various.  ...  0.17  to  1.3 

Total  costs  are  from  80  cents  to  Si. 42  per  100  pounds,  or  $16.00 
to  $28.00  per  ton.  To  the  actual  cost  of  niter  must  be  added 
transportation  to  port,  $4.25,  an  export  tax  of  about  S5.00  per 
ton,  and  a  freight  rate  of  about  Si  1.00  to  ICurope. 

Another  authority  claims  that  at  the  average  cost  a  quintal 
(100  pounds  i  of  nitrate  maybe  placed  on  board  ship  from  a 
mine  50  miles  from  port,  for  Si. 25  in  gold,  or  for  $25.00  per  ton. 

These  estimates  do  not,  however,  check  with  the  valuation 
placed  on  the  imports  into  the  United  States,  in  which  the  value 
per  ton  is  given  from  $15.34  t0  S31.08  per  metric  ton  in  gold. 

While  niter  is  admitted  free  to  the  United  States,  the  export 
duty  from  Chili  is  heavy  and  forms  one  of  the  principal  sources 
of  revenue  of  that  government,  as  shown  by  the  official  record 
that  from  [878  to  [892  Chili  exported  7,496,273  tons,  worth 
$337,182,559,  from  which  the  Chilian  government  collected 
$158,696,664  in  duties  (silver). 


152 


THE    SALINE    DEPOSITS   OF    CALIFORNIA. 


185 


Niter.-  Chili  Exports. 


Year. 


Metric 

'Ions 


Value. 


Remai  ks. 


1830 

1830- 

1835- 
1S40- 

1845- 
1850- 

1855- 

1S60- 

1S65- 

1869 

1870 

1S71 

1872 

1873 

1874 

1875 
1876 
1877 
187S 
1879 
1880 
1881 
1882 
1883 
1884 
1885 
1 886 
1887 
1888 
1889 
1890 
1891 
1892 

1893 
1894 

1895 

1896  . 

1897  . 
189S  . 

1899  . 

1900  . 

1901  . 


8,340 

16,735 
35,247 

74.[-s" 
95,397 


1S34 

1839 

1844 

1849 

l854 150,948 

l859 261,049 

l864 323,111 

x868 490,464 

116,065 


182,546 

166,944 
204,676 

290,000 

258,472 

332,917 
338,750 
231,665 

325.139 

London 

Kates. 

146,342 

54 

747 

529 

Lowest. 

Highest. 

226,090 

358, 105 

495.416 

15,425,558 
22,891,786 
28,698,364 

$66  36 
57  60 
49  20 

$74  40 
69  20 
60  00 

593,518 

562,592 
438,796 
453.932 
722,787 

784,249 
921,388 

32,043,572 

25,163,038 
20,654,122 
19,230,047 
28,690,970 
33,866,196 
36,387,210 

43  So 

44  20 
42  S4 
42  40 
44  00 
40  20 

49  68 

55  4o 

55  \o 

56  60 

55  28 

44    4<> 

1,025,617 

891,727 

804,213 

36 
32 

925,414 

4is. 491 

44  4" 

47  30 

943.570  1 

1,079,000  1 
1, 218,000 

U.  S   Va 
Metric 

hie  per 

Ton. 

1,088,000 

$30 
29 

15 
2% 

39 
12 

1,060,000 

1,254,000 

34 
42 
31 

1,360,000 

1.431,143 

26 

1.417,233 

NITER — STATISTICAL   TABLES.  153 


186  Niter.— United  States  Imports. 


[874 
[875 

[877 
[878 

1880 
1881 
[882 
[883 

[885 
[887 

isss  . 
1  Bgl ' 

1891 
[892 

1893 
1894 
1895 

1896 

1897 

1898 

1899 
1900 


1 S91 1 
1891 
1892. 

1893 
1894 

C895 

1896. 

1897. 
1898 
1899. 
1900. 


V  I    \  H 


M' "  Value  Remarks 


28,  1 14 

$1,333,14' 

23,636 

968,855 

23,537 

1.  "55, 357 

-M. ""7 

1,324,299 

19,126 

223 

34,607 

[,324,299 

30,868 

[,830,396 

57. 132 

2,909,368 

68,178 

-'."45,127 

58,212 

2,469,013 

66, i" j 

2,2 1  \  2 1  7 

10,632 

1.332,'' 

63,226 

2,373,068 

74,290 

2,253,806 

70,233 

2,i6S,6o7 

76," 

2,500,137 

[32.938 

3,090,900 

99.663 

2,579,93o 

96,815 

2,933. '74 

[16,889 

3.673,537 

99,594 

:,.'s5.356 

$31.98  per  ton 

120,;^" 

3.77S,36o 

31.38  per  ton 

117.352 

3,566,744 

30.39  per  ton 

96,484 

2,810,187 

29.12  per  ton 

i49,ss  j 

2,29S, 2}" 

15.34  per  ton 

149.836 

3,486,313 

23.42  per  ton 

[85,022 

4,868,520 

26.31  per  ton 

]  s-  Niter.— United  States  Exports. 

Yl    AK. 


Tons 

Value. 

80 

$4, 47s 

106 

2,984 

217 

8,355 

2,467 

[05,624 

613 

19.819 

1,211 

14,847 

729 

24.254 

[,009 

33, 

821 

24,825 

2.749 

78.^77 

3.452 

H2.55" 

154  THE   SALINE    DEPOSITS   OF   CALIFORNIA. 

CALIFORNIA  NITER. 

188  HISTORY. 

The  existence  of  niter  in  the  low  rolling  hills  along  the  Amar- 
gosa  River  has  been  an  open  secret  for  over  twenty  years,  and  its 
existence  in  the  State  is  no  new  discovery.  The  first  locations 
were  made  as  early  as  1883  by  desert  ranchmen,  at  the  insti- 
gation of  a  traveling  chemist  who  was  hunting  borax.  Yery 
little  importance  was  attached  to  the  valuable  discovery,  and 
the  locations  were  neglected  and  allowed  to  lapse. 

Subsequent  investigations  at  different  times  by  other  parties 
shared  the  same  fate. 

April  28,  1S92,  J.  M.  Forney,  a  mining  engineer  of  Santa 
Monica,  California,  spent  some  two  months  in  examining  the 
deposits,  and  his  report  was  published  by  \Y.  A.  Yandercook, 
of  Los  Angeles. 

From  this  time  on,  however,  very  little  was  done  until  1901, 
when  they  passed  into  the  hands  of  the  American  Niter 
Company,  the  present  owners. 

One  reason  why  the  beds  have  lain  idle  and  neglected  was, 
that  very  little  intelligent  prospecting  appears  to  have  been 
done  by  any  one.  The  immense  hills  were  sampled  in  the 
most  superficial  way,  as  explorations  in  the  desert  are  neces- 
sarily expensive,  and  the  explorers  were  handicapped  by  lack 
of  both  time  and  proper  capital.  Difficulty  in  obtaining  accu- 
rate analyses  was  another  drawback.  If  the  clews  obtained 
from  the  numerous  analyses  had  been  followed  up  by  capital, 
these  beds  would  have  been  worked  long  ago. 

In  1S99  interest  was  again  awakened,  and  since  that  time 
considerable  progress  has  been  made  in  the  determination  of 
values. 

Early  in  1901  the  American  Niter  Company  was  organized, 
and  most  of  the  time  has  kept  men  in  the  field,  surveying  and 
analyzing  the  deposits. 

189  LOCATION. 

Nearly  all  the  niter  beds,  so  far  as  discovered,  are  situated 
in  the  northern  part  of  San  Bernardino  County,  and  extend 
across  the  boundary  line  into  the  southern  part  of  Inyo 
County.  They  are  found  along  the  shore  lines,  or  old  beaches, 
that  mark  the  boundary  of  Death  Yalley  as  it  was  during  the 


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156  THE    SAI.INE    DEPOSITS   OF    CALIFORNIA. 

Eocene  times.  The  few  outlying  beds  so  far  discovered  are 
also  located  along  the  beach  line  of  some  one  of  the  numerous 
lakes  that  were  formed  by  the  drying-up  of  Lake  Anbury. 

190  APPEARANCE  OF  THE  NITER  BEDS. 

The  beds  and  clays  of  the  later  Ivocene  deposits,  which  con- 
tain the  nitrates,  have  been  worn  by  erosive  agencies  into 
knobs,  buttes,  and  ridges  that  have  been  compared  by  some  to 
gigantic  "haystacks"  and  "potato  hills."  They  have  a  soft, 
rounded  surface  peculiarly  their  own,  and  this,  united  to  their 
creamy-yellow  color,  enables  one  to  identify  them  readily  even 
with  a  field  glass  in  the  distance.  The  size  of  the  "hills" 
varies  from  only  50  feet  high  and  covering  two  or  three  acres, 
to  those  300  feet  or  more  in  height  and  covering  nearly  a 
section  of  land. 

The  accompanying  photographs  will  give  a  better  idea  of 
their  form  than  any  pen  picture.  In  some  nooks  and  corners, 
however,  the  rounded  appearance  of  the  beds  has  been  broken 
up  into  "ridges,"  "furrows,"  or  even  into  castellated  and  pin- 
nacled forms  that  remind  one  of  the  "ruined  cities  of  the  Bad 
Lands  of  Dakota."  This  general  description  applies  to  all  of 
the  beds,  the  Owl  Spring,  Saratoga,  and  Canon  beds  differing 
only  in  the  preponderance  of  certain  forms  of  the  "hills," 
"furrows,"  or  "castles,"  and  in  variations  of  the  shade  of 
"creamy-yellow." 

191  DEATH  VALLEY. 

The  dry  lake,  usually  marked  "Death  Valley"  on  the  maps, 
is  only  the  portion  considerably  below  sea-level,  and  is  but 
a  small  area  compared  with  the  valley  proper,  which  consists 
of  immense  inclined  planes  starting  from  the  ancient  shore 
lines  and  dipping  toward'  the  lowest  depression  from  all 
directions. 

Death  Valley  proper  begins  at  the  mouth  of  the  Amargosa 
Canon,  10  miles  south  of  Willow  Creek  ranch,  its  eastern  limit 
being  at  .Salt  Springs  on  the  old  emigrant  road  to  the  Sink  of 
the  Mojave  River. 

The  south  end  of  the  valley  is  inclosed  by  the  Kingston  Moun- 
tains on  the* east,  by  the  Avawatz  on  the  south,  by  the  Owl  on 
the  west,  and  by  the  Funeral  range  on  the  north.     The  Amargosa 


CALIFORNIA    NITER.  157 

River  heads  in  Nevada,  its  main  branches  coming  in  from  the 
Amargosa  Minima  ins.  [t  flows  in  a  southerly  direction  (or  about 
i  j.  i  miles  to  the  boundary  line  between  Enyo  and  San  Bernardino 
counties,  where  it  enters  its  caflon,  some  6  miles  long,  emerging 
from  it  on  this  edge  oi  Death  Valley.  <  >n  entering  the  valley, 
it  makes  a  wide  sweeping  curve  t<>  the  north,  passing  Saratoga 
Springs,  and  entering  Inyo  County  again  some  20  miles  west 
oi  the  caflon. 

The  north  extension  of  the  valley  proper  is  known  as  "I.ost 
Valley,"  and  reaches  from  the  month  of  Furnace  Creek  to  the 
north  boundary  of  Inyo  County. 

To  gain  some  idea  ol  the  vast  drainage  basin  whose  waters 
flow  to  Death  Valley,  it  is  only  necessary  to  state  that  the  head 
of  the  Amargosa  River  is  in  Nevada,  oxer  2X0  miles  northeast 
of  Saratoga  Springs;  that  the  Mojave  River  heads  in  the 
Sierra  Madre  Mountains,  [50  miles  to  the  southwest,  and  that 
a  rise  of  water  of  less  than  20  feet  would  carry  the  water  of 
this  river  into  Death  Valley  by  wa\  of  Salt  Springs  and  the 
South  l-'ork  of  the  Amargosa  River. 

192  GEOLOGY. 

The  geology  of  the  Great  Basin  in  general  has  already  been 
given.  At  the  niter  beds  around  the  margin  of  Death  Valley 
the  following  points  will  be  noted: 

The  underlying  rocks  of  the  districts  are  the  slates  and  schists 
of  the  Jura-Trias  period,  highly  metamorphosed  as  the  result 
of  the  intense  volcanic  action  that  has  scattered  lava  through- 
out the  district. 

Next  above  are  the  Kocene-Tertiarv  clays,  deposited  during 
that  Ion-  period  of  subsidence.  They  appear  as  some  800  feet 
of  clay  bedded  on  the  upturned  edges  of  the  older  rocks  in 
horizontal  and  undisturbed  strata,  having  a  peculiar  creamy 
color.      In  some  pla<    -       ivels  of  the  Champlain  epoch  appear. 

This  gravel,  spreading  like  a  mantle  over  the  whole  country, 
covering  and  completely  hiding  the  underlying  strata,  was 
carried  there  during  the  great  Champlain  epoch  to  the  depth  of 
from  1  to  150  feet.  It  is  only  where  the  erosive  forces  of  nature 
have  washed  away  the  top  cover  of  this  alluvial  that  the  clay 
beds  appear  below.  How  far  they  may  extend  underneath 
the  gravel,  their  depth  and  condition,  are  conjectural  and  can 
not  definitely  lie  stated  at  present. 


158  Till     SALINE    DEPOSITS   OB    CALIFORNIA. 

193  THE  CLAY  HILLS. 

The  formation  of  the  niter-bearing  clay  hills  occurred, 
undoubtedly,  in  the  Eocene-Tertiary,  during  the  long  intervals 
of  subsidence  characteristic  of  that  period,  and  are  the  result  of 
sedimentary  marine  deposits  slowly  accumulating  in  layer 
after  layer  of  fine  clays  to  a  depth  of  probably  a  thousand  feet 
or  more,  bedded  on  the  upturned  rocks  below  in  horizontal 
strata,  and  subject  to  very  little  disturbance  since  their  deposit. 

The  perfect  stratifications  reposing  conformably  in  their 
original  positions  show  the  different  layers  to  be  from  6  inches 
to  io  feet  in  thickness. 

These  claws  in  their  dry  state  are  very  hard  and  compact, 
resembling  gray  and  brown-gray  lithographic  stone.  When 
pieces  are  placed  in  cold  water,  they  soon  melt  into  slime,  the 
salines  going  into  solution  and  the  alumina  and  silica  settling 
down,  leaving  the  solution  clear.  This  action  is  very  plainly 
visible  on  top  of  some  of  the  hills,  where  water  from  the  rains 
has  sunk  down  until  finally  a  channel,  that  is  like  a  shaft, 
penetrates  the  center  of  the  hill.  In  other  places  the  waters 
have  formed  long  tunnels  through  the  hills. 

194  CALICHE. 

Until  recently,  the  whole. value  of  these  niter  hills  was  sup- 
posed to  lie  in  the  surface  coating,  for  when  the  top  scale  a  few 
inches  in  depth  was  shoveled  off,  or  even  pushed  aside  with  the 
foot,  layers  white  with  salines  were  exposed.  This  top  coating 
is  unique,  and  the  Spanish  term  "caliche,"  borrowed  from  the 
Chilians,  is  most  convenient  for  describing  the  top  coating  as 
distinct  from  the  stratified  layers. 

This  caliche  ranges  in  depth  or  thickness  from  a  few  inches 
to  several  feet. 

The  caliche  of  the  niter  beds  is  a  formation  of  considerable 
thickness  and  volume  found  a  few  inches,  or  a  few  feet,  beneath 
the  surface  of  the  terrace  deposits  of  Death  Valley  as  it  existed 
in  ages  past. 

The  surface  of  this  top  crust  or  layer  is  comparatively 
smooth,  giving  a  soft,  rounded  appearance  to  the  hills  into 
which  the  ancient  terraces  have  been  worn  by  erosion. 

While  the  top  is  smooth,  the  lower  portion  under  the  sur- 
face crust  is  irregular,  earthy,  porous,   and  blends  gradually 


V 

r 


160  THE    SALINE    DEPOSITS   OF   CALIFORNIA. 

with  the  stratified  layers  below.  While  the  ealiehe  surrounds 
and  includes  sand  grains,  gravels,  and  more  or  less  earthy 
material,  it  seems  to  have  had  the  power,  especially  in  its  upper 
crust,  of  extruding'  the  coarse  materials  of  the  soil  to  a  great 
extent.  It  roughly  conforms  to  the  general  surface,  rising  and 
falling  with  the  contour  of  the  hills.  There  are,  in  places, 
repetitions  of  the  layers,  separated  by  a  few  inches,  or  a  few 
feet,  of  more  earthy  deposits. 

The  Death  Valley  region  is  characterized  by  the  unusual 
dryness  of  the  air  and  its  capacity  for  the  absorption  of 
moisture,  and  the  maintenance  of  continued  evaporation  from 
the  soil,  which  determines  a  constant  upward  movement  of  the 
phreatic  water.  The  light  showers  of  midsummer  and  mid- 
winter do  not  penetrate  to  great  depths,  but  are  sufficient  to 
leach  the  soil  to  a  certain  distance,  turning  the  saline  solutions 
backward  and  downward,  and  producing  the  denser  upper 
crust  where  it  meets  the  upward  flow. 

While  the  hills  which  it  covers  are  composed  of  layers 
deposited  during  the  desiccation  of  Lake  Aubury  and  later  by 
the  desiccation  of  greater  Death  Valley,  the  caliche  was  not 
directly  deposited  from  such  waters,  but  is  of  later  origin. 
The  surface  caliche  is  clearly  the  result  of  the  upward  capillary 
flow  of  water  from  below,  induced  by  the  constant  and  rapid 
evaporation  at  the  surface  in  a  comparatively  rainless  region. 
It  is  not  the  result  of  a  flow  from  springs,  or  from  any 
source  at  the  surface,  or  by  the  lateral  movement  of  water; 
but  is  an  example  of  concentration,  by  evaporation  at  the 
surface,  of  the  solutions  of  nitrate  of  soda  that  were  deposited 
in  the  desiccation  of  Lake  Aubury  in  the  layers  of  the  terraces. 
The  caliche  is  a  fine  example  of  the  formation  of  extensive 
strata  in  the  midst  of  preexistent  beds,  not  by  metasomatic 
processes,  but  by  precipitation  from  sources  below. 

The  niter  itself  is  a  very  soluble  white  crystalline  salt  that 
readily  permeates  the  clays.  In  the  gradual  process  of  erosion, 
which  has  been  going  on  for  ages,  and  in  the  wearing  away  of 
the  clays  by  periodical  rains  and  floods,  the  nitrate,  upon 
solution  in  the  upper  layer,  would  immediately  be  taken  up 
and  held  by  the  strata  below  it,  and  so  on  in  rotation,  through 
the  long  period  of  years,  thus  making  the  hills  themselves 
concentrators  and  never  allowing  one  iota  of  this  salt  to 
escape,  until  the  hills  were  either  leveled  with  the  plain,  or 
the  niter  lying  on  the  slopes  would  come  in   contact  with  the 


CALIFORNIA    NITER.  161 

flow  of  water  at  their  base,  in  which  case  it  would  be  dissolved 
and  swept  away.  The  tenacity  of  this  clay  to  hold  and  retain 
the  niter  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  the  surplus  of  any  strata. 
as  soon  as  dissolved,  and  flowing  down  the  slopes,  would  be 
greedily  taken  up  by  every  clay  seam  with  which  it  came  in 
contact,  thus  covering,  at  different  angles,  all  the  horizontal 
layers  of  the  hills;  the  loose  matter  on  top  protecting  and  pre- 
serving it.  never  allowing  the  rains  to  come  in  direct  contact 
with  the  salt. 

The  surface  deposits  of  the  soluble  salts,  such  as  the  chlorides 
(common  salt),  sulphates,  and  carbonates,  are  similar  concen- 
trations by  evaporation  at  the  surface  of  similar  solutions. 

The  colors  of  caliche  in  Chili  are  yellow,  pink,  ami  green. 
The  creamy-yellow  is  the  characteristic  color  of  the  California 
beds,  but  the  pinks  and  greens  are  also  present. 

195  THE  STRATA. 

A.S  it  is  evident  that  the  niter  in  the  caliche  is  ever  beins^ 
drawn  from  below,  as  the  process  of  erosion  goes  on,  the 
question  at  once  arises.  "  What  do  the  clay  layers  that  form 
the  body  of  the  hill  contain?" 

Unfortunately,  this  question  can  not  be  answered  fully  at 
this  date.  The  huge  hills  show  abundant  faces  where  the 
strata  are  exposed  tor  a  vertical  height  of  from  50  to  over  200 
feet.  Many  samples  have  been  taken  from  the  layers  where 
accessible,  and  such  samples  give  by  analysis  all  the  way 
from  traces  to  as  high  as  50  per  cent  of  nitrates;  but  only 
pieces  can  be  broken  oh  from  favorable  edges  and  corners,  as 
the  clays  are  too  hard  to  work  with  a  pick  and  must  be 
blasted. 

Camps  must  be  built  and  miners  employed  to  penetrate  the 
hills  before  the  character  of  the  interior  is  known.  The  pits 
and  shafts  of  10  feet  or  less  in  depth  show  the  surface  values, 
but  give  no  information  as  to  what  lies  beyond. 

The  accompanying  photographs  show  the  existence  of  huge 
outcrops  of  salines,  showing  on  what  an  enormous  scale 
nature  was  at  work.  They  show  a  vein  or  bed  of  rock  salt 
over  15  feet  thick,  that  is  overlaid  and  underlaid  by  some  50 
feet  or  more  of  salt  mixed  with  sand  and  clay,  that  outcrops 
for  half  a  mile  in  length:  immense  beds  of  borates:  large  beds 
of  soda  carbonates,  etc.:  and  it  is  but  natural  to  expect  that 
11— Bul.  24 


162  THE   SALINE    DEPOSITS   OF    CALIFORNIA. 

when  the  lands  are  thoroughly  prospected,  certain  strata  or 
lasers  in  the  body  of  the  hills  will  be  found  to  be  far  richer 
than  any  of  the  weathered  surface.  This  is  evident  also,  if 
one  considers  again  the  origin  of  the  beds. 

196  ORIGIN  OF  THE  BEDS. 

The  mud  beds  of  the  Kocene  carried  and  contained  the  enor- 
mous amount  of  animal  and  plant  life,  the  decomposition  of 
which,  after  the  water  receded,  made  the  nitrates  of  to-day. 
Nitrification  is  the  process  of  fermentative  oxidation,  which 
always  sets  in  when  moist  nitrogenous  animal  or  vegetable 
matter  is  left  to  itself,  in  the  presence  of  air  and  any  basic 
substance. 

The  oxidation  of  the  nitrogen  of  the  atmosphere  is  also  pro- 
moted thereby,  and  associates  itself  readily  with  any  azotized 
decomposed  organic  substance,  adding  its  portion  to  the 
mysterious  chemistry  of  nature.  The  artificial  niter  farms  of 
Europe  are  proof  that  this  theory  regarding  the  origin  of 
nitrates  is,  in  the  main,  correct. 

As  organic  life  was  not  evenly  distributed  throughout  all  the 
different  strata  of  these  mud  beds,  it  will  naturally  follow  that 
some  layers  of  clay  will  simply  show  traces  of  niter,  while 
others,  perhaps,  above  or  below  them,  will  yield  percentages 
equal  to  those  found  in  the  beds  of  Chili.  It  is  expected  that 
the  work  of  the  coming  season  will  answer  many  of  the  ques- 
tions that  might  be  asked. 

The  points  of  resemblance  between  the  California n  and  the 
Chilian  beds  have  already  been  given  in  paragraph  [81. 

197  DIFFICULTIES  IN  SAMPLING. 

The  difficulties  in  the  way  of  sampling  these  vast  fields  can 
hardly  be  appreciated  by  those  who  have  not  visited  them. 

They  are,  as  yet,  so  far  from  the  railroads  that  one  can  not 
visit  them,  even  for  a  few  days,  without  a  large  and  expensive 
outfit,  for  one  must  carry  bedding,  tents,  and  food  for  man  and 
animals. 

Without  cabins  where  supplies  can  be  stored,  it  is  impossible 
to  carry  supplies  for  more  than  one  mouth's  stay  without 
having  supplies  sent  out;  and",  while  out,  most  of  the  time  is 
consumed  in  traveling. 

Given  one  level  claim  of  160  acres,  and  it  would  not  be  easy 


MORRISON'S  RANCH    AI.So    KNOWN    AS   THE    CHINA    OR    EVANS    RANCH 
UPPER  CASON  DISTRICT,  WILLOW  CREEK,  INYO  COUNTY. 


NITER  HILLS    LOWER  CANON   DISTRICT,  SAN  BERNARDINO  COUNTY. 


164  THE   SALINE    DEPOSITS   OF   CALIFORNIA. 

in  a  day's  time  to  sample  the  surface  to  a  depth  even  of  2  or  3 
feet;  but  each  niter  district  is  made  up  of  from  twenty-five  to 
forty  claims,  each  of  160  acres,  and  instead  of  being  level  is  a 
jumble  of  hills,  200  or  300  feet  high,  and  the  difficulties  are 
multiplied  accordingly. 

With  only  tents  to  live  in  and  work  in,  it  is  impossible  to  do 
the  chemical  work  in  the  field;  and  with  so  many  questions 
arising,  it  is  not  satisfactory  to  take  samples  to  be  analyzed 
weeks  after,  for  one  ever  wishes  on  certain  samples  to  go  back 
and  investigate  that  particular  place,  hill,  or  stratum  again, 
and  at  once.  It  is  not  to  be  wondered  at,  then,  that  nearly  all 
the  work  so  far  done  has  been  mainly  on  the  surface  caliche. 

The  definition  of  the  most  valuable  areas,  and  approximate 
estimates  of  quantities  and  values,  can  only  come  after  camps 
'are  built  and  a  force  of  men  have  been  at  work  for  months  in 
'the  field;  but  it  may  be  said  that  the  wide  distribution  of  the 

i 

Initer,  and  the  many  high  analyses  obtained,  fully  warrant  this 
full  investigation. 

198  CHEMICAL  ANALYSES. 

Analyses  of  samples  from  over  200  claims  show  that  the 
following  minerals  are  associated  with  the  niter  in  varying 
quantities:  Chloride  of  sodium  (common  salt),  sulphate  of 
sodium  (glauber  salt),  sulphate  of  lime  (gypsum),  sulphate  of 
magnesium  (epsom  salt),  and  iodine  compounds. 

In  some  of  the  niter  districts  the  chloride,  sulphate,  and 
carbonate  of  sodium  exist  in  beds  and  deposits  of  large  extent, 
as  mentioned  elsewhere. 

The  following  analyses  are  printed  simply  to  give  some  idea 
of  the  variations  in  the  proportions  of  the  various  salines: 

Death  Valley  Niter. 


Niter 

Chloride  of  sodium 


7.28         1450        27. 4>>        46.50  61.20 

6.36  7.56        21.15         25.30  16.40 


Sulphate  of  sodium .60  .70  2.05  5.30  3.10 


20 


Sulphate  of  lime .20  .10  1.04  .30 

Sulphate  of  magnesium    .    .  1.30  2.80  2.00  1.20  1.20 

Insoluhles 84.26        74-34        46.36        21.40  17.90 


i'«  1.00       100.00       100.00       100.00         100.00 


No  potash  has  been  found  as  yet  in  the  beds.     The  insolubles 
include  iron,  alumina,  and  silica. 


CALIFORNIA    NITER.  165 

ANALYSES  OF   CALICHE. 

A  summarj  ol  some  of  the  analyses  of  the  caliche,  or  sur- 
face coating,  only  of  some  of  the  hills,  was  as  follows.  Note 
that  the  analyses  are  not  ultimate  analyses  of  the  caliche,  as 
the  percentages  of  niter  given  are  only  those  extracted  by 
boiling  in  water  for  half  an  hour.  The  percentage  of  niter  in 
the  residues  was  not  determined: 

Upper  Canon  Beds. — Highest  per  cent  of  niter.  21;  lowest, 
0.3.     Average  of  24  analyses,  8.98  per  cent. 

Lower  Canon  Beds. —  Highest  per  cent  of  niter.  12.90;  lowest, 
0.67.     Average  of  14  analyses,  4.77  per  cent. 

Saratoga  Niter  Beds. —  Highest  per  cent  of  niter.  32.72: 
lowest.  1.52.     Average  of  34  analyses,  9.4  per  cent. 

Owl  Springs. —  Highest  per  cent  of  niter.  67;  lowest,  .38. 
Average  of  18  analyses,  17.2  percent. 

Tecopah. — Two  samples  gave  6.85  and  .3s  per  cent  of  niter. 

Valley. — Highest  per  cent  of  niter,  11. 41:  lowest,  1.52. 
Average  of  5  samples,  8.3  per  cent. 

Confidence. —  Highest  per  cent  of  niter,  1.90;  lowest,  .76. 
Average  of  4  samples,  1.7  per  cent. 

Round  Mountain. — Two  samples  gave  15.6  and  .76  percent. 

Salt  Springs. — <  Ine  sample  gave  3.04  per  cent  niter. 

In  all  the  analyses  given  above,  each  sample  came  from  a 
separate  claim  of  160  acres. 

The  average  from  104  samples  of  caliche  taken  from  104 
claims  was  9.54  per  cent  of  niter.  These  analyses  show  that 
the  niter  exists  throughout  the  district;  but  can  not  he  taken 
as  the  final  averages,  owing  to  the  difficulties  in  the  way  of 
sampling,  as  already  mentioned. 

200  ANALYSES  OF  STRATA. 

Specimens  of  the  clay  strata  have  been  collected  and  a  num- 
ber of  them  analyzed,  sufficient  to  show  the  fact  that  some  of 
the  strata  carry  from  15  to  over  40  per  cent  of  niter,  and  that  a 
thorough  investigation  of  the  field  promises  to  show  the  exist- 
ence of  bodies  of  the  stratified  clays  that  will  pay  to  work  on 
a  commercial  scale. 


166  THE   SALINE    DEPOSITS   OF    CALIFORNIA. 

201  QUANTITIES. 

It  is  impossible  to  give  the  exact  acreage  of  lands  located 
for  niter,  but  the  following  will  give  some  idea  of  the  extent 
of  the  beds: 

The  number  of  acres  located  in  the  Owl  district  is  over 
6000;  Saratoga  district,  over  8000;  Upper  Canon,  about  4000; 
Lower  Canon,  about  3000;  Round  Mountain  and  Valley,  over 
3000;  Confidence,  2500;  Salt  Springs,  about  3000;  Tecopah, 
2500;  Pilot,  Dauby,  Needles,  and  Volcano,  3000;  a  grand  total 
of  about  35,000  acres. 

In  order  to  form  some  idea  of  the  possible  value  of  the  fields, 
one  may  consider  the  caliche  alone  for  a  moment. 

The  minimum  thickness  of  this  surface  niter  is  6  inches. 
One  acre  of  ground  contains  43,560  square  feet;  this  at  6 
inches  of  depth  is  equal  to  21,780  cubic  feet;  this  at  70  pounds 
per  cubic  foot  amounts  to  1,524,600  pounds,  or  760  tons,  per 
acre,  say  750  tons;  30,000  acres  (allowing  5000  acres  as 
rejected)  at  750  tons  amounts  to  over  22,000,000  tons. 

In  some  places  the  caliche  is  known  to  be  from  3  to  over  5 
feet  in  depth,  and  the  acreage  of  the  coatings  of  the  high  hills 
is  considerably  more  than  if  the  ground  were  level,  as  in  the 
above  figures.  When  it  is  remembered  that  some  of  the  strata 
from  3  to  10  or  more  feet  in  thickness  have  been  found  to 
contain  values  from  15  to  over  40  per  cent  of  niter,  it  will  be 
seen  that  the  quantities  are  sufficient  to  attract  the  attention 
of  the  largest  capitalists  and  to  lead  to  their  full  exploration 
and  development. 

202  VALUES. 

No  attempt  will  be  made  to  place  a  value  upon  these  niter 
beds,  based  on  tonnage  or  average  per  cent  per  ton.  The  facts 
so  far  as  obtained  show  the  existence  of  quantities  on  a  scale 
large  enough  to  be  of  national  interest.  The  analyses  show 
that  niter  exists  on  some  of  the  claims  rich  enough  to  rival 
the  beds  of  Chili. 

During  the  coming  year  the  parties  in  the  field  will  give  their 
attention  to  detailed  study,  exploration,  and  development  of 
the  fields;  selecting,  so  far  as  possible,  the  best  locations  in 
which  to  define  and  measure  areas  and  quantities,  and  to 
ascertain  the  commercial  values  of  the  same.  The  next  step 
then  will  be  to  work  out  the  best  methods  of  treating  the 
material  in  factories. 


MITER  BEDS,  SARATOGA  DISTRICT,  SAN    BERNARDINO   COUNTY.     Dl'.ATH 

VALLEY  IN   DISTANC] 


NITER  BEDS,  SARATOGA  DISTRICT.  SAN  BERNARDINO  COUNTY.     DEATH 

VALLEY  IN  DISTANCE. 


168  THE   SALINE    DEPOSITS   OF   CALIFORNIA. 

203  MINING  AND  MANUFACTURING. 

The  methods  used  in  Chili  have  already  been  broadly  noted, 
but  these  methods  are  open  to  much  severe  criticism  as  crude 
and  wasteful.  While  it  is  too  early  to  outline  any  specific 
methods  that  may  be  used,  there  is  no  doubt  but  that  "  Yankee" 
ingenuity  and  skill  will  improve  greatly  upon  Chilian  methods, 
and  the  result  will  be  that  material  as  low  as  6  or  7  per  cent 
in  niter  will  be  utilized.  At  first,  of  course,  only  the  higher 
grades  will  be  selected  and  worked. 

At  Daggett,  borate  muds  running  as  low  as  5  per  cent  are 
sent  through  the  Bartlett  and  Humphries  works,  and  they  by 
no  means  claim  a  perfect  process,  in  either  plant  or  manipula- 
tion. In  Chili,  residues  containing  10  per  cent,  or  over,  of 
niter  are  wasted.  The  niter  beds  are  not  "poor  men's  mines," 
but  will  require  large  capital  and  the  best  technical  and 
chemical  skill.  With  such  applied  to  them,  a  new  industry  of 
importance  to  the  nation,  as  well  as  to  the  State,  will  be  fairly 
started. 

204  WATER-SUPPLY. 

The  whole  question  of  water-supply  for  manufacturing  is 
one  of  moderate  expenditure  for  developing  the  existing 
springs,  and  for  artesian  and  dug  wells.  There  is  ample  water 
below  the  surface  of  the  desert  valleys. 

205  CLIMATE. 

July  and  August  are  too  hot  for  outdoor  work,  and  Death 
Valley  proper,  at  that  time,  is  dangerous.  During  the  rest  of 
the  year  its  climate  is  like  that  of  The  Needles,  California ; 
Yuma,  Arizona;  Daggett,  Salton,  and  other  places  on  the  west- 
ern desert  where  large  populations  exist.  From  early  in 
October  to  April  the  climate  is  good,  as  is  that  of  any  part  of 
the  western  desert.  The  high  winds  that  blow  in  the  spring 
and  fall  may  be  trying  at  times  to  the  unprotected  traveler,  but 
where  houses  exist  they  are  easily  avoided. 

206  TRANSPORTATION. 

The  coming  year  will  show  where  the  main  lines  of  road 
will  cross  the  desert  and  settle  this  question.  Some  of  the 
surveys  already  made  pass  through  the  niter  districts. 


CALIFORNIA    NITER.  169 

21  '7  RANCHES. 

The  Willow  ranch  (also  known  as  the  China,  Evans,  and 
Morrison  ranch)  is  located  on  Willow  Creek  in  the  Upper 
Canon  beds.  Hay,  both  barley  and  alfalfa,  is  raised  here  in 
considerable  quantities.  Anything  raised  in  Southern  Cali- 
fornia can  be  raised  here.  This  place,  and  Lee's  at  Resting 
Springs,  show  what  can  be  done  if  the  land  is  irrigated. 
Numerous  photographs  made  show,  better  than  words,  the 
capabilities  of  the  land.  These  ranches  are  occupied  during 
the  year  through. 

With  the  development  of  the  niter,  and  the  utilization  of 
the  present  water-supplies,  ranches  will  spring  up  in  many 
places,  forming  oases  in  the  desert.  In  this  respect  the  niter 
fields  of  California  have  a  great  advantage  over  the  extremely 
arid  fields  of  Chili. 


MINERALOGY. 

208  Soda  Niter. —  Nitrate  of  soda;  cubic  niter;  niter:  Chili  salt- 
peter; caliche.  Nitric  acid,  63.5;  soda,  36.5.  Color,  white, 
also  reddish  brown,  gray,  and  lemon  yellow.  Hardness,  i- 
Specific  gravity,  2.24  to  2.29.  Blowpipe  deflegrates  on  char- 
coal with  less  violence  than  niter,  giving  yellow  light;  also 
<leli<piesees.  Flame  intensely  yellow.  Dissolves  in  three 
parts  of  water.  Taste,  cooling.  Found  in  Inyo  County  in 
the  Confidence,  Tecopah,  and  Upper  Canon  beds;  and  in  San 
Bernardino  County  in  the  Valley,  Round  Mountain,  Saratoga, 
Lower  Canon,  Salt  Springs,  and  Owl  Springs  beds,  and  as 
crystals  lining  a  cave  in  the  Calico  district. 

209  Potash  Niter. — Niter  of  potash;  saltpeter:  salitre.  Nitric 
acid,  53.5;  potash,  46.5.  Color,  white.  Hardness,  2.  Gravity, 
2.09.     Deflegrates  vividly  on  burning  coals.     Color,  flame  violet. 

Taste,  saline.      Found  in  the  desert  northeast  of  Sal  ton,  River- 
side Count} . 

210  Nitrocalite. —  Hydrous  nitrate  of  calcium.  Occurs  on  efflo- 
rescent silken  tufts  and  masses.  More  common  where  the  soil 
is  calcareous.      Taste,  sharp  and  bitter. 

211  Nitromag-nesite. — Nitrate  of  magnesia.  In  white  efflores- 
cence.    Taste,  bitter. 


170  THE   SALINE    DEPOSITS   OF   CALIFORNIA. 

212  Nitrobarite. — Barium  nitrate.  Nitric  acid,  41.4;  baryta,  58.6. 
Colorless. 

213  Gerhardtite. — Nitrate  of  copper.     Color,  emerald  green. 

214  Darapskite. — A  nitro-sulphate  of  soda.  Nitric  acid,  22.0; 
sulphuric  acid,  32.7;  soda,  38.0;  water,  7.3;  or  sodium  nitrate, 
34.7,  and  sodium  sulphate,  58.0.  Colorless,  transparent.  Water 
is  expelled  by  heat  without  decrepitation.  Found  in  the  niter 
beds  of  Death  Valley,  Inyo  and  San  Bernardino  counties. 

215  Nitrogflauberite. — A  nitro-sulphate  of  soda.  Nitrate  of 
sodium,  60.1;  sulphate  of  sodium,  33.5;  water,  6.4.  In  white 
homogeneous  mass  with  fibrous  crystalline  structure.  Found 
in  the  niter  beds  of  Inyo  and  San  Bernardino  counties. 


THE  NITER  DISTRICTS. 

INYO  COUNTY. 

216  Upper  Canon  Beds. — The  locations  here  cover  3880  acres  of 
land,  along  both  sides  of  the  Amargosa  River  and  Willow 
Creek.  The  ranch  of  Dave  Morrison  (also  known  to  desert 
men  as  the  "Evans,"  and  "China"  ranch)  is  located  on  Willow 
Creek,  in  the  center  of  these  beds.  The  initial  point  of  the 
surveys  by  which  the  locations  are  governed  is  a  boundary 
monument  between  the  counties  of  Inyo  and  San  Bernardino, 
on  the  Amargosa  River.  This  monument  was  erected  in  [876 
by  the  official  survey.  The  photographs  show,  better  than 
any  description,  the  huge  dimensions  of  the  clay  niter  hills  of 
this  district;  the  deep  ravines;  the  soft  coating  of  caliche;  the 
strata  of  saline  clays;  and  the  enormous  erosion  to  which  the 
whole  has  been  subjected.  Along  the  Amargosa  River,  about 
one  mile  west  of  the  ranch,  large  flats  have  been  made  by  the 
melting  away  of  the  clay  hills;  the  waters  of  the  river  having 
evidently  been  backed  for  a  long  period,  until  it  could  cut  its 
way  through  the  eruptive  strata  of  Merrill  Mountain,  at  the 
mouth  of  Willow  Creek. 

Around  the  outer  boundaries  of  the  beds  the  stratifications 
of  clays  are  coarser,  the  color  more  of  a  light  gray,  the  per- 
centage of  silica  increases,  and  gravel  even  is  found  in  the 
strata,  until  they  shade  into  sandstones.  Limestones  and 
tufas  are  also  found  around  the  outer  boundaries  of  the  niter 
district.     In  the  outer  rim,  these  tufas  may  be  found  alternat- 


NITER  HILLS,  SARATOGA  DISTRICT.  SAX  BERNARDINO  COUNTY. 


NITER  HILLS,  SARATOGA   DISTRICT    SAN  HKRXAKDINo  COUNTY, 


172  THE   SALINE    DEPOSITS   OF   CALIFORNIA. 

ing  with  clays  and  sandstones,  forming  cliffs  several  hundred 
feet  high,  and  capped  by  alluvial  drift. 

This  tufa  has  evidently  been  deposited  at  the  same  time, 
but  has  no  further  bearing  upon  the  niter,  containing  mostly 
silica.  It  is  of  the  pumiceous  variety  and  the  result  of  com- 
minuted volcanic  rocks.  In  color  it  is  a  dead  white,  somewhat 
oolitic  in  structure,  very  light,  making  a  good  building-stone, 
for  which  purpose  it  is  largely  used  by  the  settlers.  The 
nature  of  this  volcanic  conglomerate  is  well  understood,  and 
represents  the  remains  and  fragments  of  lava  knitted  together 
by  aqueous  action  and  deposited  as  a  sediment  during  submer- 
sion. In  some  places,  numerous  strata  of  gypsum  cross  and 
recross  the  clays  in  all  directions,  forming  sometimes  distinctly 
traceable  ledges,  six  inches  thick,  of  transparent  plates  called 
"selenite." 

Another  variety,  "satin  spar,"  r.ure  white,  and  delicately 
fibrous,  is  also  met  with  in  nearly  all  the  beds  in  small  quanti- 
ties; this  gypsum,  together  with  common  and  glauber  salt, 
being  the  ever  accompanying  elements  of  the  nitrates.  Traces 
of  free  iodine  are  also  found,  but  not  sufficient  to  warrant 
attention. 

In  confirmation  of  every  evidence  as  to  real  age  of  these 
deposits,  the  valuable  discovery  by  Mr.  Unthank  of  the  remains 
of  a  mammal,  embedded  in  the  clay,  forms  a  very  important 
factor.  It  was  found  about  half  a  mile  west  of  the  ranch,  in 
a  dry  watercourse,  on  the  side  of  a  worn-away  stratum.  The 
body  of  it  had  disappeared,  and  only  the  head  remained,  whose 
enormous  dimensions  were  still  plainly  to  be  seen  in  the  space 
it  had  once  occupied,  but  the  decay  of  ages  had  done  its  work 
so  thoroughly  as  to  leave  nothing  but  a  line  dusty  powder 
behind;  the  few  crumbling  pieces  of  the  skull  and  jaw,  two 
incisors  and  four  large  molars,  were  all  that  could  be  recovered, 
and  they  were  carefully  packed  up  and  preserved  for  future 
reference.  This  animal,  according  to  standard  authority  on 
that  subject,  is  called  a  Pakeotherium,  and  belongs  to  the  Her- 
bivoers  of  the  early  Eocene,  forming  the  connecting  tie  in  the 
serial  line  of  progression  and  marking  the  pedigree  of  the  horse 
family  of  to-day,  holding  equal  claim  of  being  the  true  pro- 
genitor of  the  Tapiroids. 

217  Tecopah. — This  niter  district  received  its  name  from  the  old 
Indian  chief  who  lived  for  years  in  this  region.  It  is  located 
just  north  of  the  south  line  of  Inyo  County,  on  the  head  of 


MTKK  HILLS,  SARATOGA  DISTRICT.  SAN  BERNARDINO  COUNTY 


NITKK   HILLS    SARATOV   IM-I.S    SAN   BERNARDINO  COUNTY. 


171  THE    SAI.INK    DEPOSITS   OF    CALIFORNIA. 

Willow  Creek,  and  is  about  1 1  miles  east  of  the  Upper  Canon 
beds.  The  location  covers  2560  acres.  These  beds  are 
partially  buried  under  the  Quaternary  gravels,  and  appear  as 
a  large  plava  lake  cut  by  erosion  into  low,  rounded  hills. 
These  beds  are  known  to  contain  borates  in  quantity,  and 
show  the  existence  of  nitrates. 

As  these  beds  were  only  located  in  1901,  they  have  not  been 
explored  to  any  extent. 

218  Confidence. — These  beds  are  situated  along  the  south  side 
of  Death  Valley  at  the  "Narrows,"  about  30  miles  west  of 
Saratoga  Springs.  They  take  their  name  from  the  old  Con- 
fidence gold  mine,  a  mine  worked  over  twenty  years  ago  by 
the  Mormons.  The  wreck  of  their  old  mill  stands  in  the  valley 
about  4  miles  north  of  the  niter  hills.  The  locations  here 
cover  2400  acres.  The  clay  hills  here  are  equal  in  size  to  any 
of  those  in  the  other  districts.  The  noticeable  feature  is  that 
they  have  been  protected,  by  their  position,  from  erosion  and 
have  very  few  ravines  and  gulches,  and  show  but  few 
exposures  of  the  underlying  strata.  The  locations  were  made 
last  year  and  the  beds  have  not,  as  yet,  been  developed.  The 
presence  of  the  same  minerals  as  in  the  other  beds  has  been 
noted,  noticeably  the  large  percentage  of  "  natural  sodas." 

SAN  BERNARDINO  COUNTY. 

219  Upper  Canon  Beds  — The  Upper  Canon  beds  of  Inyo  County, 
already  described,  extend  south  of  the  county  line,  half  a  mile 
into  this  county. 

220  Lower  Canon  Beds. — These  are  located  in  the  side  of  the 
Amargosa  River  Canon,  about  4  miles  south  of  the  Upper 
Canon  beds,  with  which  they  were  once  connected;  the  inter- 
vening portion  has  been  eroded,  as  clearly  shown  by  the  small 
patches  remaining  in  a  few  places.  The  hills  present  the  same 
general  appearance  as  those  north  of  them,  excepting  that  they 
are  more  rounded  and  softer  in  their  general  outlines,  and 
show  fewer  vertical  faces  and  narrow  canons.  There  are  more 
of  the  red  clays  in  these  hills  than  in  the  northern  ones,  and 
all  of  the  red  clays  seem  to  be  richer  in  niter  than  the 
gray-colored;  but  further  developments  may  not  sustain  this 
suggestion.  The  locations  in  this  district  cover  some  2720 
acres. 


HARD  STRATA.  NITER   HILLS.  WILLOW  CREEK,   fNYO  COUNTY. 


HARD  STRATA,  NITER  HILLS,   UPPER  CANON  DISTRICT,  INYO  COUNTY. 


176  THE  SALINE    DEPOSITS   OF   CALIFORNIA. 

Good  wagon  roads  from  the  main  road  along  the  Amargosa 

penetrate  to  the  centers  of  both  the  upper  and  lower  districts. 

221  Salt  Springs. — The  Salt  Springs  district  is  located  about  20 
miles  south  of  the  Willow  Creek  ranch,  about  10  miles  south 
of  the  end  of  the  Amargosa  Canon,  on  the  South  Fork  of  the 
Amargosa  River.  The  locations  cover  2SS0  acres.  At  the 
pass,  at  the  west  end  of  the  district,  and  at  the  east  end  of 
Death  Valley,  are  large  salt  springs  that  give  the  name  to  the 
district.  The  old  Salt  Lake  (Utah)  emigrant  road  that  came 
down  the  Amargosa  River  to  Death  Valley  left  the  valley  at 
this  pass,  and  going  around  the  east  end  of  the  Avawatz  range 
passed  south  to  the  Sink  of  the  Mojave. 

A  brief  geological  examination  of  the  district  is  sufficient  to 
show  that  the  waters  of  the  Mojave  River,  in  comparatively 
recent  times,  entered  Death  Valley  through  this  pass.  This 
district  at  first  resembles  only  an  extensive  level  playa  lake, 
and  only  travel  over  it  gives  any  idea  of  the  depth  of  the 
deposits.  The  clays  have  the  same  creamy  color  and  soft  tex- 
ture as  the  "hill"  fields,  and  the  same  general  chemical 
composition. 

Having  only  been  located  in  1901,  but  little  development 
work  has  been  done  upon  them. 

222  Saratoga. — The  Saratoga  beds  form  the  main  portion  of  a 
partially  eroded  beach  that  lies  at  the  junction  of  the  Avawatz 
range  and  Death  Valley.  These  beds  extend  along  the  north 
flank  of  the  range  for  some  6  miles,  and  in  some  places  are  a 
mile  in  width,  the  locations  selected  covering  over  5600  acres. 
The  panorama  photographs  show  clearly  the  beach  structure 
and  the  general  character  of  the  hills,  which  exist  here  on  even 
a  grander  scale  than  those  of  the  canon  districts.  The  road 
from  Daggett  to  Death  Valley,  by  way  of  Cave  Springs,  passes 
along  the  extreme  west  end  of  the  district;  while  the  road 
from  Johannesburg  to  Saratoga  Springs  passes  through  the 
eastern  portion  of  the  beds. 

Saratoga  Springs,  well  known  to  every  desert  traveler,  are 
located  at  the  west  end  of  the  Funeral  range,  about  3^  miles 
north  of  these  niter  beds.  While  no  wagon  roads  have  been 
constructed  through  the  district,  it  is  possible  to  drive  a  light 
wagon  among  some  portions  of  the  hills  by  following  up  some 
of  the  numerous  "washes." 

The  clay  hills  run  from  one  to  nearly  three  hundred  feet  in 


NITRATES — SAN    BERNARDINO    COUNTY.  177 

height,  and  in  general  have  the  same  soft  rounded  outlines  as 
in  the  Canon  district.  They  do  n<>t.  however,  as  a  rule,  show 
the  underlying  strata  so  well  as  at  the  Upper  Canon.  The 
eastern  end  of  the  district  contains  unlimited  supplies  of  salt, 
in  the  form  of  hard  salt  crusts  from  3  to  10  feet  thick,  and  also 
beds  of  rock  salt.  One  of  these  beds  of  rock  salt  is  exposed 
tor  a  thickness  of  [6  feet  and  outcrops  for  half  a  mile  along  the 
gulch.  It  is  probable  that  by  blasting  through  the  heavy 
crusts  beds  of  rock  salt  may  be  exposed  in  many  other  pla< 
in  this  district. 

The  rock  salt  vein  exposed  is  of  a  reddish  tinge,  hard,  and 
comparatively  clear.  A  specimen  analyzed  gave  over  95  per 
cent  of  chloride  of  sodium.  Thick  and  extensive  beds  of 
borates  are  found  throughout  this  district,  borates  of  lime 
predominating.  Veins  of  sulphate  of  lime,  in  the  form  of 
gypsum,  selenite,  and  satin  spar,  are  common  everywhere  in 
this  district,  as  they  are,  in  fact,  in  all  of  the  niter  districts. 

The  western  end  of  the  district  contains  less  salt  crust,  and 
the  caliche  is  softer  than  at  the  eastern  end. 

In  the  central  portion  there  are  large  areas  rich  in  the  carbon- 
ates and  sulphates  of  soda.  This  field  promises  to  become  one 
of  the  centers  of  activity,  not  only  on  account  of  the  niter, 
but  also  from  the  other  valuable  salines  it  contains.  It  is 
centrally  located,  and  artesian  wells  in  the  valley  promise 
abundant  water,  as  well  as  that  already  supplied  by  the  river 
and  springs  of  the  valley. 

223  Round  Mountain. — This  district,  which  is  only  one  mile 
square,  is  located  just  beyond  the  western  end  of  the  Saratoga 
beds,  of  which  it  was  once  a  portion,  and  therefore  needs  no 
specific  description. 

224  Owl  Springs. — This  district  is  on  the  road  from  Johannes- 
burg to  Death  Valley,  about  20  miles  southwest  from  Saratoga 
Springs,  and  is  miles  northeast  from  Leach's  Spring.  It 
occupies  the  head  of  the  valley  between  the  west  end  of  the 
Avawatz  range  and  the  east  flank  of  the  Owl  Mountains. 
The  district  takes  its  name  from  the  well-known  "Owl  Holes," 
or  Owl  Springs,  that  are  located  in  about  the  center  of  the 
district.     The  locations  selected  here  cover  6080  acres. 

The  niter  hills  of  this  field  are  still  partially  covered  by  the 
Quaternary  gravels,  the  tops  of  the  clay  hills  showing  from 
12— But.  24 


178  THE   SAI.IM-:    DEPOSITS   OF    CALIFORNIA. 

25  to  ioo  feet  above  the  gravels  in  many  places.  As  the  field 
lies  near  the  top  of  the  divide,  it  has  been  more  protected  from 
erosion  than  the  other  fields.  The  southwestern,  or  higher, 
portion  of  the  district  is  especially  rich  in  eolemanite  and  other 
borates,  while  the  northeastern,  or  lower,  portion  is  rich  in 
large  deposits  of  rock  salt  and  heavy  salt  crusts.  The  caliche 
of  this  field,  in  general,  is  not  so  soft  and  friable  as  that  of  the 
other  fields,  but  carries  sufficient  salt  to  make  the  surface 
difficult  to  penetrate  with  a  pick.  In  other  respects  the  bills 
resemble  the  other  districts. 

225  Valley* — This  district  is  located  on  the  north  rim  of  Death 
Valley,  about  12  miles  west  of  Saratoga  Springs.  While  the 
hills  are  not  high,  from  25  to  100  feet,  the  caliche  is  soft  and 
thick  and  looks  promising.  The  locations  cover  2560  acres  of 
ground. 

A  noticeable  feature  is  the  outcrop  of  large  deposits  of  soda 
carbonates  at  various  points  in  the  hills.  The  Amargosa 
River  rises  to  the  surface  at  one  point  among  the  hills,  form- 
ing what  are  known  as  the  Valley  Salt  Springs.  That  they 
are  due  to  a  local  rising  of  the  river  water  to  the  surface  is 
plainly  to  be  seen,  as  half  a  mile  below  the  springs  a  dike  of 
volcanic  rock  may  be  seen  crossing  the  valley,  shutting  off  the 
underflow,  and  forcing  the  waters  to  the  surface.  The 
"springs"  are  large  in  volume,  flowing  probably  in  the  dry 
season  over  1000  miner's  inches  of  water,  and  forming  a  salt 
marsh  nearly  a  mile  long.  The  water  is  a  heavy  salt  brine, 
as  shown  by  the  analysis  given  under  "Chlorides."  These 
beds  were  located  last  year  and  are  as  yet  undeveloped. 

lJ 26  Pilot. — The  Pilot  niter  district  is  located  on  the  old  beach 
line  east  of  Searles  Lake,  at  the  south  end  of  the  Slate  range. 
It  takes  its  name  from  Pilot  Peak,  a  famous  landmark  of  the 
desert  that  is  about  20  miles  south  of  this  district.  The  loca- 
tions are  similar  in  general  detail  to  those  already  described  in 
Death  Valley. 

Searles  Lake  is  the  main  depression,  or  sink,  left  by  the 
evaporation  of  the  ancient  lake  that  once  filled  what  is  now 
known  as  the  Panamint  and  Salt  Wells  valley,  and  whose 
terraces  may  be  found  600  feet  or  more  above  the  well-known 
borax  lake.  The  local  conditions  were  such  that  the  beach 
lines  of  this  great  lake  suffered  more  from  erosion  than  did 


DESERT  LINING."  SARATOGA  SPRINGS,  SAN   Kl'KNAK 
I » 1  N  <  >  COUNTY. 


SLIDING   DOWN  A  NITER   HILL    SAN   BERNARDINO  COUNTY. 


180  THE    SALINE    DEPOSITS   OF    CALIFORNIA. 

Death   Valley,  or  more  of  the  soft  clay  niter  hills  would  be 
found  around  its  margins. 

227  Calico. — As  early  as  April,  1883,  considerable  excitement 
was  created  by  the  discovery  of  niter  near  the  town  of  Calico, 
a  few  miles  north  of  Daggett.  The  find  proved  to  be  only  an 
efflorescence  along  some  small  seams  and  rock  cavities,  and  an 
incrustation  in  a  small  cave  that  gave  some  good  cabinet 
specimens.  Nothing  of  any  extent  or  commercial  value  has 
as  yet  been  found. 

228  Danby. — The  existence  of  niter  has  been  reported  as  dis- 
covered in  the  playa  deposits  near  the  salt  beds  at  Danby 
Lake,  and  locations  were  filed  upon  the  land  in  1901;  but  no 
development  work  has  been  done,  and  no  analyses  are  at  hand 
at  the  date  of  this  bulletin. 

229  Needles. — Clay  hills  of  considerable  extent  that  carry  niter 
in  commercial  quantities  are  reported  as  existing  in  the  moun- 
tains on  the  west  side  of  the  Colorado  River,  about  30  mlies 
south  of  the  town  of  Needles.  Locations  covering  about  300 
acres  were  made  during  the  last  year,  but  no  development 
beyond  assessment  work  has  been  done.  Analyses  of  specimens 
brought  in  show  from  14  to  40  per  cent  of  niter  in  clay  strata. 

SAN  DIEGO  COUNTY. 

230  Volcano. — Locations  covering  4S00  acres  have  been  made 
along  the  old  beach  lines  east  of  the  Mud  Volcanoes,  in  Town- 
ship 10  South,  Range  14  East,  S.  B.  M.,  in  this  county.  The 
few  specimens  brought  in  gave  from  3  to  5  per  cent  of  niter, 
but  gave  little  information  as  to  the  possible  value  of  the 
discovery.  The  locations  having  been  but  recently  made,  their 
value  can  not  be  shown  until  development  work  has  been  done. 


NITER  ANALYSES. 

The  following  analyses  are  selected  from  a  large  number 
placed  at  the  disposal  of  the  State  Mining  Bureau,  and  are 
given  for  the  purpose  of  showing  the  general  character  of  the 
results  obtained  by  many  different  prospectors. 

In  no  case  have  two  of  the  different  chemists  quoted  analyzed 
the  same  sample. 


MTER    ANALYSES. 


181 


-31  UPPER  CANON  BEDS. 

Analysis   of   surface    material,    by    I  lite    IVickizer,  of    I.<>> 

Angeles,  California: 


Nitrate  <>f  soda 
Chloriik-  of  soda 
Sulphate  of  soda 
Nitrate  of  potash 
Soluble 


N.I 

6.9 
[9.0 


Analysis  by  the  Bradley  Fertilizer  Company \  of  Boston,  gave 

"Nitrate  of  soda,  7.25  per  cent." 

The  following  analyses  of   surface  material  were  made  by 
Thomas  Price,  of  San  Francisco,  over  ten  years  ago: 


Nitrate  of  S.xla  in  Earths.        Nitrate  of  Soda  in  Salts. 


Nitrate  oi  Soda  in  Claj  s. 


8.70 

51-75 

14-5° 
2.50 
3.10 

3-5° 
2.80 

5-30 


49.64 
33-14 
10.03 
22.95 

8.92 

5.8l 

i5-3» 
23.20 

46.75 
54-5  7 
55-42 
31.11 
21.67 


15-54 

7-»3 
3.06 

4-57 
2.10 
[.87 
1-97 

3-S9 

3-05 

10.58 

1  }.1S 

11.63 
7.80 
5-53 


Analyses  by  G.  E.  Bailey  and  Prof.  Will  C.  Bailey,  of  San 

Francisco: 

Upper  Canon  "Caliche." 


Nitrate  of  Soda 

Chi 

arideof  Soda. 

Mil]. hate  of 
Soda. 

other  Salines 

Insoluble 

5-32 

4.40 

•05 

■73 

89-5 

M-5° 

7-56 

•"7 

2-S7 

75-0 

18.25 

I3-76 

.06 

2-93 

65.0 

17-50 

5-67 

.09 

7.24 

69-5 

282 


238 


234 


182  THE   SALINE    DEPOSITS   OF   CALIFORNIA. 

Upper  Canon  Salts. 


Nitrate  of  Soda. 


Chloride  of  Soda. 


others  Not  Determined. 


12.5 

S4.0 

50.6 

47-9 

40.9 

47-6 

58.0 

30.0 

52-1 

39-o 

68.4 

19.0 

57-o 

30.0 

60.0 

22.0 

LOWER  CANON  BEDS. 


"Caliche." 

Salts. 

Nitrate  of  Soda. 

Chloride  of  Soda. 

Nitrate  of  Soda.          Chloride  of  Soda 

6.46 
4.60 

I2.90 
7.20 

IO.60 

5-88 

3-44 
8.94 

5-84 
10.49 

15-2 
43-o 
46.0 
48.0 
4S.5 

51.6 
29.0 
34-o 
38.0 
49.1 

SARATOGA  BEDS. 


"Caliche." 

Salts. 

Nitrate  of  Soda. 

Nitrate  of  Soda. 

3-04 

20.2 

5-7° 

57-o 

IO.22 

47.0 

14-45 

65.6 

25-87 

93-5 

32.72 

57-4 

28.15 

OWL  SPRINGS. 


"Caliche." 

Salts. 

Nitrate  of  Soda. 

Nitrate  of  Soda. 

1. 14 

85.O 

6.85 

45-i 

27.40 

95-7 

14.45 

93-2 

32.72 

7i-5 

22.21 

87.0 

35-76 

NITER    IN    FERTILIZING.  •  s:; 


NITER  IN  FERTILIZING. 

All  plants  require  light,  air.  heat,  water,  cultivation,  and 
a  fertile  soil.  Every  crop  removes  from  the  soil  a  portion  ol 
the  plant-food  contained  therein,  and  continuous  cropping 
will,  in  time,  exhaust  the  richest  soil,  unless  the  nutritive  ele- 
ments are  restored;  therefore,  the  truly  economical  farmer  will 
feed  the  growing  plant  or  tree  with  a  generous  hand.  The 
literature  on  this  subject,  while  voluminous,  is  so  scattered  as 
to  be  difficult  of  access  to  the  general  reader,  and  the  following 
notes  are  added  in  order  to  give  some  general  idea  of  the  value 
oi   nitrate  of  soda  in  fertilizing. 

The  most  important  materials  used  to  supply  nitrogen,  in 
the  composition  of  commercial  fertilizers,  are  nitrate  of  soda 
and  sulphate  of  ammonia.  Nitrate  of  soda  is  particularly 
adapted  for  top  dressing  during  the  growing  season,  and  is  the 
.[iiickest  acting  of  all  the  nitrogenous  fertilizers. 

Dried  blood,  tankage,  azotine,  fish  scrap,  castor  pomace,  and 
cotton-seed  meal  represent  fertilizers  where  the  nitrogen  is  only 
slowly  available,  and  they  must  be  applied  in  the  fall  so  as  to 
be  decomposed  and  available  for  the  following  season.  Nitro- 
gen in  the  form  of  nitrate  of  soda  readily  leaches  through  the 
soil  and  is  at  once  available  during  the  growing  and  fruiting 
season,  possessing,  therefore,  a  decided  advantage  over  all  other 
nitrogen  plant-foods. 

The  following  list  of  materials  used  as  a  source  of  nitrogen, 
making    commercial    fertilizers,  shows    the    percentage    of 


■ft 
in    making 

nitrogen  in  each: 


Pei  Cent 
Nitrogen. 

Nitrate  of  Soda  ■  •   '5  to  16 

Sulphate  of  ammonia x9  to  22 

Dried  blood      IO  to  I4 

Tankage ■■       5  to  12 

Dried  fish  scrap   9  to  1 1 

Cotton-seed  meal 6  to    7 

Castor  pomace 5  to    6 

T<  'bacco  stems 2  to    3 

Bone  meal 2  to    4 

Peruvian  guano 6  to  10 

Nitrate  of  potash !3  to  14 

Manures 0.3  to     1.6 


184 


THK   SAI.lXi:    DEPOSITS   OF    CALIFORNIA. 


The  following  table  shows  the  numl 
removed  in  one  year  from  one  acre  by 

Wheat 35 

Rye 30 

Barley 40 

Oats   60 

Corn 50 

Buckwheat 30 

Potatoes 200 

Sugar  beets 

Mangel-wurzel    ...         

Meadow  hay 

Timothy   

Green  corn 

Red  clover 

Lucerne 

Sugar  cane 

Sorghum 

Cotton 750 

Hops    600 

Tobacco 1600 

Grapes 2 

Cabbage    31 

Cucumbers 25 

Onions 1 1  ' 

Oranges 10 


)er  of  pounds  of  nitrogen 
the  crop  specified: 


i5> 
22 

2> 
2 

2 

8 

20 

15 


Crop, 
bushels. 

bushels. 

bushels. 

bushels. 

bushels. 

bushels. 

bushels. 
\  tons. 

tons. 
'•  tons,  dry. 

tons,  dry. 
!  tons. 

tons,  dry. 

tons. 

tons. 

tons. 

lbs.,  seed. 

lbs.,  seel. 

lbs. 

tons. 

tons. 

tons. 
I  tons. 

tons. 


Nitrogen. 
59  lbs. 

51  lbs. 
46  lbs. 
55  lbs. 
67  lbs. 
35  lbs. 
46  lbs. 
69  lbs. 

150  lbs. 

83  lbs. 

89  lbs. 

85  U.s. 
105  lbs. 
113  lbs. 
153  lbs. 
121  lbs. 

26  lbs. 

84  lbs. 
S9  lbs. 
32  lbs. 

150  lbs. 

86  lbs. 
72  lbs. 
24  lbs. 


The  following  table  shows  the  quantity  of  fertilizer  desirable 
for  one  acre,  with  the  percentage  of  nitrogen  in  it.  The  quan- 
tities given  are  for  the  average  soil,  under  average  conditions, 
the  character  and  amounts  of  other  plant-foods  in  the  fertilizer 


not  being  considered  here: 


Fertilizer. 


Nitrogen  in 
l-'erUlizer. 


Artichokes 

Asparagus 

Barley 

Beans  

Beets,  garden 

Beets,  sugar 

Benne 

Blackberry 

Buckwheat 

Cabbage 1 ,  500 

Cane,  sugar 


Per  Acre. 

Per  Cent. 

600  lbs. 

500 

4-5 

500 

I 

700 

2 

400 

3 

1,000 

6 

55° 

5 

650 

3 

300 

3 

1,500 

4 

750 

3 

NITER    IN    FERTILIZING. 


IS.-) 


Perl  ilizer. 


\ hi ogen  ui 
Pertflizer. 


Carrots 
Cassava 
Celery 

Corn  .  .  . 


Cotton 

Cranberry 

Cucumbers 

Currants 

Egg  plant 

Flax 

Hemp 

I  [ops       ... 
I  [orseradish 
Lettuce 

Melons 

Mint 

Mustard 

I  >ats 

( mions   . .    . 


( hranges 


Peas 

Pineapples  .  .    .  . 
Potatoes,  Irish 
Potatoes,  sweet 

Radishes 

Ramie 

Rape 

Raspberry 

Rhubarb      .... 

Rice 

Spinach 

Squash 

Strawberry  .... 

Sunflower 

Tobacco 

Tomatoes 

Trees,  general 

Turnips 

Wheat 


Per  .  I.  re. 

51  K  , 

700 
550 

60O 

1 ,  200 

550 

2,000 

400 

Soo 

I, CO  1 

600 
1,000 
1,200 

700 

300 

400 

1,500 

1'cr  Tret. 

20 
Per  At  re. 

900 
2,000 

700 

550 

800 

650 

600 

700 
1,300 

450 
1,200 
1,600 
1,500 

500 

600 
1,200 

600 

450 

\<  •  • 


Per  1  ent. 

3 

3 

4 

2-5 

2 

2 

3 

3 

4 

3 

5-5 

3 

4 

5 

3 

4 

3 

2-5 

4 


■•5 
3 
3 
4 

3 
2 

4 

3 

3 

3 

3 

4 

3 

3 

3-5 

4 

3 

2-5 

3 


186  THE    SALINE    DEPOSITS   OF    CALIFORNIA. 

Artificial   fertilizers  are  used   freely   by  the   fruit-growers  of 

California,  and  their  use  among  the  farmers  is  steadily  increas- 
ing. One  reason  why  they  are  not  used  more  extensively  is 
due  to  the  fact  that  they  have  to  be  imported  into  the  State. 
It  is  also  a  fact  that  the  total  amount  used  is  only  a  small  per- 
centage of  the  amount  that  should  be  used.  Every  one  will 
admit  that  the  use  of  fertilizers  in  this  State  is  small  compared 
with  their  use  in  Germany,  for  in  that  country  they  are  used 
more  extensively  than  in  any  other  nation;  yet  Dr.  Maereker, 
the  Director  of  the  Government  Agricultural  Experiment 
Station  at  Halle,  Germany,  says:  "Just  think!  the  consump- 
tion of  potash  (in  the  fertilizers)  alone  in  Germany  must 
increase  700  per  cent  before  the  normal  demands  of  the  lands 
and  farms  are  met  and  satisfied."  (Arbeiter  der  Deutsches 
Landwirthschafts  Gesellschaft  Zusammengestellt  von  G. 
Siemssen,  Berlin,  1S96. ) 

236  NITRATE  OF  SODA  AND  ORANGES. 

To  illustrate  the  value  of  nitrate  of  soda  to  one  crop  alone, 
in  this  State,  the  orange  may  be  taken  as  an  example.  Manx 
orange  groves  in  California  are  to-day  yielding  small  crops, 
because  the  trees  have  not  been  properly  cultivated  and 
fertilized.  The  trees  remove  plant-food  from  the  soil  just  the 
same  as  wheat,  yet  no  farmer  would  think  of  trying  to  raise 
wheat  for  ten  or  fifteen  consecutive  years  on  the  same  soil. 
This  sterility,  or  exhaustion,  of  the  plant-food  can  not  be 
remedied  by  cultivation;  the  foods  must  be  replaced  in  the 
form  of  fertilizers.  Ordinary  manures,  etc.,  do  not  give 
nitrogen  enough,  as  is  shown  in  the  table  at  top  of  page  1S4. 
Artificial  fertilizers  raise  the  yield  of  the  trees  to  a  maximum, 
and  at  the  same  time  give  the  trees  that  vigor  of  growth  which 
enables  them  to  resist  climatic  changes  and   parasitic  attacks. 

A  long  list  of  experiments  carried  out  in  many  places  shows 
that  nitrate  of  soda  is  the  best  source  of  nitrogenous  food  for 
the  orange  tree.  Sulphate  of  ammonia,  for  example,  has  to 
undergo  a  change  in  the  soil  before  its  nitrogen  is  available  for 
plant-food,  so  that  much  of  it  is  lost,  while  the  nitrogen  of  the 
nitrate  of  soda  is  at  once  assimilated  by  the  growing  tree  or 
plant. 

Many  analyses  have  been  made  of  the  oranges  of  Florida 
and  California.  Taking  the  average  orange  into  consideration 
there  are,  according  to  Prof.  J.  J.  Earle,  385  ounces  of  nitrogen 


NITER    IN    FERTILIZING. 


1-7 


in  44,000  oranges.  While  the  chemical  composition  of  the 
orange  tree  varies  widely,  the  following  gives  the  average  of 
many  analyses;  in  too  parts  there  are  the  following: 


Phosphoric       pntnati 
Nitrogi  11  A,  ,,1  '  otaan. 


Fruit       

Leaves  

Trunk  and  branches 


Lime. 


0.43 
0.71 
O.80 


A-sthe  foliage  is  perennial,  and  the  trunk  and  branches  <>i 
slow  growth  and  subjected  to  limited  pruning,  the  greater 
portion  of  the  plant-food  assimilated  is  expended  upon  the  fruit. 

Taking  an  acre  of  orange  grove,  then,  as  containing  about 
100  trees,  and  producing  12  tons  of  fruit,  this  crop  would  con- 
tain the  following: 

Pounds. 

Nitrogen ^ 

Phosphoric  ;ici<l IO' 

Potash 85 

The  lime  not  being  taken  into  account,  as  it  abounds  in  most 

soils. 

On  this  basis,  the  formula  of  a  chemical  manure  that  would 
restore  these  elements  to  the  soil  would  be  as  follows,  for  one 

acre:  Pounds. 

Nitrate  of  soda   56° 

Superphosphate  of  lime  (16    soluble) 6l2 

Sulphate  of  potash    I"° 

Of  course  this  formula  would  require  modification  for  special 
conditions,  as  where  gypsum  (sulphate  of  lime)  would  be 
required  in  some  districts,  etc. 

To  look  at  the  necessity  of  using  fertilizers  in  another 
light,  the  amount  of  plant-food  in  the  form  of  nitrogen  in 
the  oranges  shipped  out  of  the  State  may  be  considered. 
The  number  of  onuses  in  a  box  varies,  according  to  size, 
from  as  low  as  80  to  as  high  as  200.  In  a  carload  there 
are  362  boxes,  equal  to  from  js.ooo  to  72,000,  or  an  average, 
say,  of  44,000  oranges  per  car.  According  to  Professor 
Earle's  analysis.  44,000  oranges  contain  385  ounces  (about 
24  pounds)  of  nitrogen  and  [38.8  ounces  (8.3  pounds)  of 
soda,  or  32.3  pounds  of  these  chemicals.  As  the  shipments 
of  oranges  amount  to  some  25,000  carloads  in  one  year,  there 


188  THK   SALINE    DEPOSITS   OF   CALIFORNIA. 

is  shipped  out  of  the  State  each  year  over  8,075,000  pounds  of 
plant-food — over  4000  tons  of  nitrate  of  soda  in  the  oranges 
alone. 

The  same  form  of  statistics  might  be  applied  to  agriculture 
in  general,  to  all  the  crops  given  in  the  table  on  pages  1S4-185, 
and  the  results  would  give  some  idea  of  the  immense  quanti- 
ties of  nitrates  taken  from  the  soils  of  California  every  year 
and  shipped  away. 

From  this  it  will  be  seen  that  the  niter  beds  may  prove,  in 
the  near  future,  a  most  valuable  addition  to  the  resources  of 
the  vState. 


ELEVATK  ).\S. 


A.  minus  sign  (      ibefon  the  elevation  indicates  below  sea-level. 

Mil. 

Alvarado . - 20 

A.mboy,  San  Bernardino  County       60S 

Ash  Hill,  San  Bernardino  County  _ [>937 

A.vawatz  Mountains,  San  Bernardino  County 6,290 

Bagdad,  Santa  Fe  Railroad . 78] 

Barstow,  Santa  Fe  Railroad 2,105 

Bennett's  Wells,  Death  Valley,  Inyo  County — 323 

Blackwater  Well,  San  Bernardino  County.- 3»5i5 

Borax  Works,  Death.  Valley _. — 200 

Box  Spring,  San  Bernardino  County L536 

Bristol,  Santa  Fe  Railroad. 705 

Brown's  Peak ... 5.892 

Cadiz,  Santa  Fe  Railroad 816 

Cameron  Salt  Lake,  Santa  Fe  Railroad 3,200 

Cajon,  Santa  Fe  Railroad 2,927 

Cave  Springs 3-97© 

Coleman  Borax  Field,  Death  Valley 1,500 

Cottonwood  Spring,  San  Bernardino  County. 2,273 

Coyote  Wells,  San  Bernardino  County 375 

I  Raggett,  Santa  Fe  Railroad L999 

Danby,  Santa  Fe  Railroad. .      — 1,22s 

Death  Valley,  lowest  part  opposite  Bennett's  Wells — 427 

Fdis< m,  Santa  Fe  Railroad 1.724 

Echo  Mountain  . 3.500 

Fossil  Peak,  San  I  )iego  County  . .      600 

Francis  Spring,  San  Bernardino  County.. 4,220 

Furnace  Creek,  Borax  Works,  Death  Valley — 200 

Furnace  Springs,  Death  Valley  . — 337 

Funeral  Mountains — — 6,500 

Garlic  Springs 2,455 

( Granite  Wells,  San  Bernardino  County 4,200 

Granite  Spring,  San  Bernardino  County 4,1 15 

Halloran  Spring,  San  Bernardino  County 3.272 

(189) 


190  'nil';  sal i M-:  deposits  ok  California. 

Feet. 

Harper,  Santa  Fe  Railroad 2,276 

Haslet,  Santa  Fe  Railroad . 1  ,S6o 

Hesperia,  Santa  I«V  Railroad 3,1 84 

Hinkley,  Santa  Fe  Railroad 2,156 

Indio — 22 

Ivanpah . 4,238 

Java,  Santa  Fe  Railroad ....    958 

Johannesburg . . 3,500 

Kleinfelter,  Santa  Fe  Railroad 1 ,445 

Kramer,  Santa  Fe  Railroad. 2,479 

Lake  Mono,  Mono  County  (6,730) 6,3X0 

Lake  Mono  Craters .  9, 1 37 

Lava  Mountains,  San  Bernardino  County 5,013 

Le  Conte  Peak 6,580 

Leach's  Pass 1 ,959 

Leach's  Spring 3,535 

Los  Angeles . 270 

Ludlow,  Santa  Fe  Railroad 1,775 

Mesquite  Valley,  San  Bernardino  County 3,764 

Mesqnite  Wells,  Death  Valley — 228 

Mc  Bride  Peak I3>432 

Mojave,  Southern  Pacific  Railroad — Santa  Fe  Railroad  2,751 

Monte  Blanco,  Coleman  borax  field,  Inyo  County 1,500 

Mount  Dana — 1 2,992 

Mount  Lyell ... 1 3,042 

Mount  Perry   5>5°o 

Mount  Ritter 13,072 

Mount  San  Bernardino 14,000 

Mount  Smith  . 6,300 

Mount  Whitney 14,898 

Needles,  Santa  Fe  Railroad,  Colorado  River 491 

Newberry 1,823 

Niter  Fields,  Chili 3,000  to  4,000 

No.  2  Lake,  San  Bernardino  County . .  3,168 

Oceanside,  Santa  Fe  Railroad _  _ 44 

Oro  ( irande,  San  Bernardino  County - 2,625 

Owl  Peak,  San  Bernardino  County 3>5°° 

Owl  Springs,  .San  Bernardino  County.    .... 1,906 

Pilot  Peak 5,525 

Point  of  Rocks,  Santa  Fe  Railroad 2,423 

Pyramid  Peak . 6,754 


ELEVATIONS.  191 

i  i  i  i . 

Randsburg,  Kern  County 3-55° 

Resting  Springs  .  . !.75° 

Round  Mountain,  Death  Valley    - - 1.790 

Salt  Wells - 307 

Salton,  Southern  Pacific  Railroad — 265 

San  Bernardino I>°75 

San  Marcos   —  -- 5^8 

Santa  Fe  Springs   .  .  . -  - 1 59 

Saratoga  Springs,  Death  Valley. ..- 3''- 

Searles  Lake.  San  Bernardino  County. ---  1 

Siberia...    1.264 

Soda  Lake.  Sink  of  Mojave. [,128 

Summit - -- •  3.8i9 

Table  Mountain,  San  Diego  County 850 

Telescope  Peak,  Death  Valley    - 10,937 

Victor.  Santa   Fe"  Railroad .  . 2,713 

Volcano  Springs,  Southern  Pacific  Railroad — 265 

Willow  Creek  Ranch 1.307 

Waterman.  Santa  Fe  Railroad  _ .    2,115 

Willard's  Fake.  San  Bernardino  County  . 2,524 

Willow  Springs,  San  Bernardino  Comity 2,900 

Yucca  Springs,  San  Diego  County.    240 


A    PROSPECTOR. 


1^^^ 

H^fe*^ 

■ 

• 

PACK  OUTFIT,  DEATH  VALLEY, 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 


A  bibliography  might  be  compiled  on  the  subjects  men- 
tioned in  this  bulletin,  tor  references  to  the  resources  of  the 
deserts  of  California  are  to  be  found  in  abundance,  buried  in 
the  proceedings  of  scientific  societies,  in  scientific  papers, 
in  illustrated  magazines,  and  in  public  and  private  reports. 
The  few  references  given  are  intended  only  as  a  guide  to  those 
specially  interested  in  methods  of  analysis,  manufacture,  and 
other  points  that  could  not  be  given  in  this  bulletin: 

BIDDEL,  II.  I.     Sodas.     Ainer.  Jour.  Sri.,  3rd   scries,  vol.  35,  p.  475. 

CHATARD,  T.  M.     Sodas.    Amer.  Jour.  Sci.,  3rd  series,  vol.  36,  p.  14s. 
r.  s.  Geol.  Surv.,  1S90.     Bulletin  No.  60. 

COLVILLE,  P.  V.     Death  Valley  Botany.     Science,  20,  342. 
Death  Valley  Exp.  1891-93,  U.  S.  Geol.  Survey. 

COPE,  B.  D.     Death  Valley.      Amer.  Naturalist,  27-990. 

DIX,  R.  S.      Death  Valley.     Chatauquan,  13-629. 

GOOCH,  P.  A.     Sodas.     Proc.  Amer.  Acad.  Sci.,  18S6,  p.  167. 
Analyses  Borates.     U.  S.  Geol.  Surv.,  18S7,  Bulletin  No.  42. 

HARRINGTON,  M.  W.      Death  Valley  Meteorology.     U.  S.  Weather 

Bureau,   1S92. 

HANKS,  H.     Borax.     California  Mining  Bureau,  vol.  3. 

KING,  CLARENCE.     Sodas.     Geol.    Expl.   40th   Parallel,  vols.  1,  2. 

LUNGE,  GEORGE.     Method  Analysis.     See  his  books,  "Sulphuric 

Acid  and  Alkali,"   3  vols.     London,   isSo. 

MANLY,  \V.  L.     "Death  Valley  in  '49"     1894. 

NEWTON,  WILLIAM.     Chili  Niter.    Jour.  Chem.  Industry,  May  31, 
1900. 

PAYEN.      Sodas.      Am.  de  Chimie,  part  2,  vol.  65,  p.  156. 

RUSSELL.     Sodas.     Geol.  Reconn.  in  Oregon,  4th  Ann.  Rept.,  U.  S. 
Geol.  Survey,  p.  435. 

SPEARS,  J.   R.     Death  Valley  Sketches.     New  York,  1892. 

WHITFIELD,    J.    E.     Borate   Analyses.     U.    S.    Geol.    Surv.,    18S9, 
Bulletin  No.  55. 

WOHLER.      Analyses    Borates.      Amer.    Chetn.  and    I'harin.,    CXLL, 
p.  68. 
13— Bui..  24.  (193) 


194  THE   SALINE    DEPOSITS   OF    CALIFORNIA. 

ANALYSES,   METHODS.     "Mineral   Resources  U.   S.,M    Rothwell, 
1897,  p.  511. 

BORAX.     California  Acad.  Sci.,  vol.  1,  p.  i"4. 
Pacific  R.  R.  Reports,  vol.  5,  p.  101. 
California  Mining  Bureau,  Report  No.  2,  p.  227. 
Smithsonian  Cont.  No.  144,  part  3,  p.  70. 
California  Mining  Bureau,  Register  of  Lake  County,  1901. 

DEATH   VALLEY.     Fauna.     U.    S.    Expl.    Expd.,    1893.     596-48.3. 
Am.  Anthropologist,  vol.  5,  p.  351,  Oct.,  1892. 
U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.     Contrih.  from  F.  S.  Herbarium,  vol  4,  1893. 
U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.     North  Am.  Fauna,  No.  7,  May  31,  1893,  pp.  285, 

345- 
Biological  Soc.  Wash.,  D.  C,  vol.  8,  May,  1892. 
F.  S.  Geol.  Surv.,  Bulletin  No.  42,  p.  647. 
Am.  Chem.  Jour.,  vol.  2,  1880,  p.  247. 
Proc.  Calif.  Acad.  Sci.,  No.  1,  1SS6. 
Bull.  Calif.  Acad.  Sci.,  No.  4,  p.  358. 
Anier.  Jour.  Sci.,  ser.  3,  vol.  5,  p.  287;  vol.6,  p.  12S;  vol.  20,  p.  111. 

LAKE  BONNEVILLE.     U.S.  Geol.   Surv.,   Monograph  No.  1,  1S90. 

FAKE   FAHONTAN.     U.  S.  Geol.  Surv.,  Monograph  No.  11,  1885. 

OWENS    FAKE.     U.    S.    Geol.    Surv.,    west    of    100th    Mer.,    iS76v 
pp.  I3°-F35,  and  PP-  189-190. 
F    S.  Geol  Surv.,  Sth  Ann.  Rept.,  1886,  part  1. 

SODAS.     F.  S.  Geol.  Surv.,  Bulletin  No.  9,  1 


APPENDIX 


CALIFORNIA  STATE  MINING  BUREAU. 


This  institution  aims  to  be  the  chief  source  of  reliable 
information  about  the  mineral  resources  and  mining  industries 
of  California. 

It  is  encouraged  in  its  work  by  the  fact  that  its  publications 
have  been  in  such  demand  that  large  editions  are  soon 
exhausted.  In  fact,  copies  of  them  now  command  high  prices 
in  the  market. 

The  publications,  as  soon  as  issued,  find  their  way  to  the 
scientific,  public,  and  private  libraries  of  all  countries. 

STATE  MINERALOGIST. 

The  California  State  Mining  Bureau  is  under  the  super- 
vision of  Hon.  Lewis  K.  Anbury,  State  Mineralogist  by 
appointment  of   Hon.  Henry  T.  Gage,  Governor  of  California. 

The  Mining  Bureau  is  supported  by  legislative  appropria- 
tions, and  in  some  degree  performs  work  similar  to  that  of  the 
geological  surveys  of  other  States;  but  its  purposes  and  func- 
tions are  mainly  practical,  the  scientific  work  being  clearly 
subordinate  to  the  economic  phases  of  the  mineral  field,  as 
shown  by  the  organic  law  governing  the  Bureau,  which  is  as 
follows: 

-  C.  4.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  said  State  Mineralogist  to  make,  facili- 
tate, and  encourage  special  studies  of  the  mineral  resources  and  mineral 
industries  »i~  the  State.  It  shall  he  his  duty:  To  collect  statistics  con- 
cerning the  occurrence  of  the  economically  important  minerals  ami  the 
methods  pursued  in  making  their  valuable  constituents  available  for 
1  ommercial  use;  to  make  a  collection  of  typical  geological  and  minera- 
logical  specimens,  especially  those  of  economic  or  commercial  impor- 
tance    such   collection   con>titutin<^   the    Museum    of  the   State   Mining 

"95) 


CALIFORNIA    STATE    MINING    BUREAU.  197 

Bureau;  to  provide  a  library  of  books,  reports,  drawings,  bearing  upon 
tlu-  mineral  industries,  the  sciences  of  mineralogy  and  geology,  and  the 
arts  of  mining  and  metallurgy,  such  library  constituting  the  Librai  >  ol 
the  State  Mining  Bureau;  t"  make  a  collection  of  models,  drawings,  and 
descriptions  of  the  mechanical  appliances  used  in  mining  and  metallur- 
gical processes;  to  preserve  and  no  maintain  such  collections  and  library 
a-  to  make  them  available  for  reference  and  examination,  and  open  to 
public  inspection  at  reasonable  hours;  to  maintain,  in  effect,  a  bureau  of 
information  concerning  the  mineral  industries  of  this  State,  to  consist  of 
such  collections  and  library,  and  to  arrange,  classify,  catalogue,  and 
index  the  data  therein  contained,  in  a  manner  to  make-  the  information 
available  to  those  desiring  it,  and  to  provide  a  custodian  specially 
qualified  to  promote  this  purpose;  to  make  a  biennial  report  to  the 
Board  of  Trustees  of  the  Mining  Bureau,  setting  forth  the  important 
results  of  his  work,  and  to  issue  from  time  to  time  such  bulletins  as  he 
may  deem  advisable  concerning  the  statistics  and  technology  of  the 
mineral  industries  of  this  State. 

THE  BULLETINS. 

The  field  covered  by  the  books  issued  under  this  title  is 
shown  in  the  list  of  publications.  Each  bulletin  deals  with 
only  one  phase  of  mining.  Many  of  them  are  elaborately 
illustrated  with  engravings  and  maps.  A  nominal  price  only 
is  asked,  in  order  that  those  who  need  them  most  may  obtain 
a  copy. 

THE  REGISTERS  OF  MINES. 

The  Registers  of  Mines  form  practically  both  a  State  and  a 
County  directory  of  the  mines  of  California,  each  county  being 
represented  in  a  separate  pamphlet.  Those  who  wish  to  learn 
the  essential  Eacts  about  any  particular  mine  are  referred  to 
them.  The  facts  and  figures  are  given  in  tabular  form,  and 
are  accompanied  by  a  topographical  map  of  the  county  on  a 
large  scale,  showing  location,  towns,  railroads,  roads,  etc. 

HOME  OF  THE  BUREAU. 

The  Mining  Bureau  occupies  the  north  half  of  the  third 
floor  of  the  Ferry  Building,  in  .San  Francisco.  All  visitors  and 
residents  are  invited  to  inspect  the  Museum,  Library,  and 
other  rooms  of  the  Bureau  and  gain  a  personal  knowledge  of 
its  operations. 

THE  MUSEUM. 

The  Museum  now  contains  nearly  16,000  specimens,  care- 
fully  labeled  and  attractively  arranged  in  showcases  in  a  great, 


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200  CALIFORNIA   STATE    MINING    BUREAU. 

well-lighted  hall,  where  they  can  be  easily  studied.  The  col- 
lection of  ores  from  California  mines  is  of  course  very  exten- 
sive, and  is  supplemented  by  many  cases  of  characteristic  ores 
from  the  principal  mining  districts  of  the  world.  The  educa- 
tional value  of  the  exhibit  is  constantly  increased  by  substi- 
tuting the  best  specimens  obtainable  for  those  of  less  value. 

These  mineral  collections  are  not  only  interesting,  beautiful, 
and  in  every  way  attractive  to  the  sightseers  of  all  classes,  but 
are  also  educational.  They  show  to  manufacturers,  miners, 
capitalists,  and  others  the  character  and  quality  of  the 
economic  minerals  of  the  State,  and  where  they  are  found. 
Plans  have  been  formulated  to  extend  the  usefulness  of  the 
exhibit  by  special  collections,  such  as  one  showing  the  chemical 
composition  of  minerals;  another  showing  the  mineralogical 
composition  of  the  sedimentary,  metamorphic,  and  igneous 
rocks  of  the  State;  the  petroleum-bearing  formations,  ore 
bodies,  and  their  country  rocks,  etc. 

Besides  the  mineral  specimens,  there  are  many  models,  maps, 
photographs,  and  diagrams  illustrating  the  modern  practice  of 
mining,  milling,  and  concentrating,  and  the  technology  of  the 
mineral  industries.  An  educational  series  of  specimens  for 
high  schools  is  being  inaugurated,  and  new  plans  are  being 
formulated  that  will  make  the  Museum  even  more  useful  in 
the  future  than  in  the  past.  Its  popularity  is  shown  by  the 
fact  that  over  58,000  visitors  registered  last  year,  while  many 
failed  to  leave  any  record  of  their  visit. 

THE  LIBRARY. 

This  is  the  mining  reference  library  of  the  State,  constantly 
consulted  by  mining  men,  and  contains  between  4000  and  5000 
volumes  of  selected  works,  in  addition  to  the  numerous  publi- 
cations of  the  Bureau  itself.  On  its  shelves  will  be  found 
reports  on  geology,  mineralogy,  mining,  etc.,  published  by 
States,  governments,  and  individuals;  the  reports  of  scientific 
societies  at  home  and  abroad;  encyclopaedias,  scientific  papers, 
and  magazines;  mining  publications;  and  the  current  litera- 
ture of  mining  ever  needed  in  a  reference  library. 

Manufacturers'  catalogues  of  mining  and  milling  machinery 
by  California  firms  are  kept  on  file.  The  Registers  of  Mines 
form  an  up-to-date  directory  for  investor  and  manufacturer. 

The  librarian's  desk  is  the  general  bureau  of  information, 


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202  CALIFORNIA    STATE    MINING    BUREAU. 

where  visitors  from  all  parts  of   the  world  are  ever   seeking 
information  about  all  parts  of  California. 

READING-ROOM. 

This  is  a  part  of  the  Library  Department  and  is  supplied 
with  over. one  hundred  enrrent  publications.  Visitors  will  find 
here  various  California  papers  and  Leading  mining  journals 
from  all  over  the  world. 

The  Library  and  Reading-Room  are  open  to  the  public  from 
9  A.  m.  to  5  i'.  M.  daily,  except  Sundays  and  holidays. 

THE  LABORATORY. 

This  department  identifies  for  the  prospector  the  minerals 
he  finds,  and  tells  him  the  nature  of  the  wall  rocks  or  dikes  he 
may  encounter  in  his  workings;  but  this  department  does  not 
do  assaying  or  compete  with  private  assayers.  The  presence 
of  minerals  is  determined,  but  not  the  percentage  present. 
Xo  charges  for  this  service  are  made  to  any  resident  of  the 
State.  Many  of  the  inquiries  made  of  this  department  have 
brought  capital  to  the  development  of  new  districts.  Many 
technical  questions  have  been  asked  and  answered  as  to  the 
best  chemical  and  mechanical  processes  of  handling  ores  and 
raw  material.     The  laboratory  is  well  equipped. 

THE  DRAUGHTIN-GROOM. 

In  this  room  are  prepared  scores  of  maps,  from  the  small 
ones  filling  only  a  part  of  a  page,  to  the  largest  County  and 
State  maps;  and  the  numerous  illustrations,  other  than  photo- 
graphs, that  are  constantly  being  required  for  the  Bulletins 
and  Registers  of  Mines.  In  this  room,  also,  will  be  found  a 
very  complete  collection  of  maps  of  all  kinds  relating  to  the 
industries  of  the  State,  and  one  of  the  important  duties  of  the 
department  is  to  make  such  additions  and  corrections  as  will 
keep  the  maps  up  to  date.  The  seeker  after  information 
inquires  here  if  he  wishes  to  know  about  the  geology  or 
topography  of  any  district;  about  the  locations  of  the  new 
camps,  or  positions  of  old  or  abandoned  ones;  about  railroads, 
stage  roads,  and  trails;  or  about  the  working  drawings  of  any- 
thing connected  with  mining. 

MINERAL  STATISTICS. 

One  of  the  features  of  this  institution  is  its  mineral  statistics. 
Their  annual  compilation  by  the  State  Mining  Bureau  began 


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204  CALIFORNIA    STATIC    MINING    BUREAU. 

in  1893.  No  other  State  in  the  Union  attempts  so  elaborate  a 
record,  expends  so  much  labor  and  money  on  its  compilation, 
or  secures  so  accurate  a  one. 

The  State  Mining  Bureau  keeps  a  careful,  up-to-date,  and 
reliable  but  confidential  register  of  every  producing  mine, 
mine-owner,  and  mineral  industry  in  the  State.  From  them 
are  secured,  under  pledge  of  secrecy,  reports  of  output,  etc., 
and  all  other  available  sources  of  information  are  used  in 
checking,  verifying,  and  supplementing  the  information  so 
gained.  This  information  is  published  in  an  annual  tabulated, 
statistical,  single-sheet  bulletin,  showing  the  mineral  pro- 
ductions bv  both  substances  and  counties. 


LIST    OF    PUBLICATIONS.  205 

LIST  OF  PUBLICATIONS  OF  THE  CALIFORNIA  STATE 

MINING  BUREAU. 

Perry  Building,  San  Francisco,  Cm.. 

Publications  of  this  Bureau  will  he  sent  ou  receipt  of  the 
requisite  amount  and  postage,  as  noted  below: 
( .  Ill  publications  not  mentioned  arc  exhausted. ) 

Price.      Postage. 

Report     XI — 1S92,  First  Biennial      $1.00  -.  ■.  1  s 

Report  XIII— 1896,  Third  Biennial 1.00  !2o 

Bulletin  No.    2— "Methods  of  Mine  Timbering" 30  .04 

Bulletin  Mo.  5—"  Cyanide  Process  "  (4th  edition  .35  .04 
Bulletin  No.    6—"  Gold  Mill  Practices  in  California"  (3d 

edition) 5o  04 

Bulletin  No.    9—"  Mine  Drainage,  Pumps,  etc." 35  .07 

Bulletin  No.  15— «« Map    of   Oil   City   Oil    Fields,    Fresno 

County,  Cal." o5  Q2 

Bulletin  No.  16— "  Genesis  of  Petroleum  and  Asphaltum  in 

California  "  (3d  edition) 30  0, 

Bulletin  No.  18— "  Mother  Lode  Region  in  California"  ...  .35  .06 
Bulletin  No.  19— "oil    and    Gas   Yielding    Formations  in 

California "    --  Qq 

Bulletin  No.  21— "Mineral  Production  of  California,  1900"  .05  .02 
Bulletin  No.  22— "Mineral    Production    of    California    for 

past  14  years" 05  Q2 

Bulletin  No.  23— "Copper  Resources  of  California  " 50  .12 

Bulletin  No.  24— "  Saline  Deposits  of  California  " 50  .12 

Map  of  Mother  Lode 0r  02 

Reconnaissance  of  the  Colorado  Desert  Mining  District,  in 

San  Diego  County I5  Q2 

Register  of  Mines,  with  map,  Plumas  County .25  .08 

Register  of  Mines,  with  map,  Calaveras  County 25  .08 

Register  of  Mines,  with  map,  Siskiyou  County .25  .08 

Register  of  Mines,  with  map,  Trinity  County' 25  .08 

Register  of  Mines,  with  map,  Lake  County .25  .08 

Register  of  Mines,  with  ma]),  Nevada  County .25  .08 

Register  of  Mines,  with  map,  Placer  County 25  .08 

Register  of  Mines,  with  map,  Shasta  County .25  .08 

Register  of  Mines,  with  map,  El  Dorado  County .25  .08 

Register  of  Mines,  with  map,  Inyo  County .25  .08 

IN   PREPARATION  — 
Register  of  Mines,  with  map,  Mariposa  County. 
Register  of  Mines,  with  map,  Santa  Barbara  Countv. 
Register  of  Mines,  with  map,  San  Diego  County. 
Register  of  Mine*,  with  map,  Kern  Countv. 
Register  of  Mines,  with  map,  San  Bernardino  Countv. 
Register  of  Mines,  with  map,  Sierra  Countv. 
Bulletin — (Quicksilver  Mining  in  California. 
Bulletin — Gold  Dredging  in  California. 
Bulletin— Gems  and  Precious  Stones  of  California. 


206  CALIFORNIA    STATE    MINING    BUREAU 

STATISTICS. 


MINERAL  PRODUCT  OF  CALIFORNIA  FOR  1900. 


Mineral  Product.  Quantity.  Value. 

Antimony 70  tons.  $5.7°° 

Asbestos 5°     "  x,250 

Asphalt 12,575     "  253,950 

Bituminous  Rock   25,306     "  71-495 

Borax— Refined 1,602     "  [65,036 

Crude 24,235     "  848,215 

Cement 52,000  bbls.  121,000 

Chrome 140  tons.  1,400 

Clay— Brick 137,191  M.  905,210 

Pottery 59.636  tons.  60,956 

Coal 176.956     "  535.531 

Copper 29,515,512  lbs.  4,748,242 

Fuller's  Earth 500  tons.  3,750 

Gold 15.863,355 

Granite 3IT>8o3  cu.  ft.  295,772 

Gypsum  2,522  tons.  10,088 

Lead 1,040,000  lbs.  41,600 

I.ime 312,517  bbls.  283,699 

Limestone 32,791  tons.  2>i,r.3>2 

Lithia  Mica 44°     "  11,000 

Macadam 36o,597      "  262,570 

Magnesite 2,252     "  19,333 

Manganese 131     "  Iy51° 

Marble 4, 103  cu.  ft.  5,891 

Mineral  Paint 529  tons.  3,993 

Mineral  Water 2,456,115  gal>.  268,607 

Natural  Gas 40,565,500  cu.  ft.  34,578 

PavingBlocks   1,192  M.  23,775 

Petroleum   4,329,95Q  bbls.  4,152,928 

Pyrites 3,642  tons.  21,133 

Quartz  Crystals  is.ooo 

Quicksilver   26,317  flasks.  1,182,786 

Rubble   428,690  tons.  299,072 

Salt 89,338     "  204,754 

Sand— Glass 2,000     "  2,000 

Quartz 200     "  200 

Sandstone  378,468  cu.  ft.  254, 140 

Serpentine 35°    "     "  2,000 

Silver 1,510,344 

Soda 1,000  tons.  50,000 

Slate 3,500  squares.  26,250 

Tourmaline 500 

Turquoise 500  lbs.  20,000 

Total 532,622,945 


STATISTICS. 


207 


RANK    OF    THE    COUNTIES    AS    MINERAL   PRODUCERS  FOR 

THE  YEAR  1%0. 


i.  Shasta    -  .  .  $5,574,026 

2.  Los  Angeles  2, 155,198 

;.  San  Bernardino        1,965,143 

4.  Nevada  1,91' 

5.  Calaveras 1,9  15.856 

".   Kern  . .  1 

7.  Tuolumne  . .    1  ,659,  258 

8.  Amador    1,479,009 

9.  Placer 1.  u- 

r  >.  Siskiyou 1.010,383 

11.  Mono 752.121 

12.  Trinity 698,689 

1  J.    Surra  663,159 

14.  Alameda 63'. 

15.  Fresno    6t» 

16.  Santa  Barbara. ..  .       528,438 

17.  Butte 500,786 

is.    Santa  Clara 497,386 

19.  Napa 493,100 

20.  Ventura 476, 161 

21.  Inyo 420,586 

22.  El  Dorado 426,420 

San  Diego 402,061 

-M-  Plumas 369.379 

25.  Riverside 285, 1 12 

26.  Yuba  .  .  .  2^4,631 

27.  Madera 268,467 

tmento  ....  259,439 


29.  Orange 

30.  San  Benito . 

31.  Marin      .    .  . 


-  mta  CrUZ. 

33-  Lake  

34.  Mariposa  . . . 

35.  Sonoma 

36.  Contra  Costa 


.->/ ' 


Humboldt 


3S.   San  Luis  Obispo 

39.  San  Francisco. .  . 

40.  San  Joaquin      .    . 

41.  Solano 

42.  Tulare 

1  J.   Stanislaus 

44.  Lassen 

45.  Monterey        

46.  San  Mateo 

47.  Colusa 

48.  Mendocino 

49-   Kings 

50.  Del  Norte 

51.  Tell  am  a 

52.  Yolo 
Unapportioned 

Total 


5259. '  7 1 

205,650 

202,500 

191,091 

'72.74.5 
171.516 

'57.135 

146,900 

[18,827 

S5)626 
400 
39,862 
24,700 
21,566 
21, 
20,483 

19.175 
16,500 

13,930 
8,448 

3,  f83 

2.  2'  H  I 
1,760 

1.4'" 


$32,622,945 


208 


CALIFORNIA    STATE    MINING    BUREAU. 


CALIFORNIA'S  GOLD  RECORD. 


1S48  $245,301 

1849 10,151,360 

1850 41,273,106 

1851 75.938,232 

1852 81,294,700 

1853 67,613,487 

1854 69,433,931 

1855 55.485,395 

1856 57,509,4ii 

1857 43,628,172 

1858 46,591,140 

1859 45,846,599 

i860 44,095,163 

1861 41,884,995 

1862 38,854,668 

1863 23,501,736 

1864 24,071,423 

1865 17,930,858 

1866 17,123,867 

1867 18,265,452 

1868 17,555,867 

1869 18,229,044 

1870 17,45s,  133 

1871 17,477,885 

1872 15,482,194 

1873 15,019,210 

1874 17,264,836 

1875 16,876,009 


1876 $15,610,723 


1877 
1878 
1879 
18S0 
1S81 
1882 

1883 
1884 
1885 
18S6 
1887 
1888 
1889 
1S90 
1891 
1892 

1893 
1894 

1895 
1S96 
1897 
1S9S 
1899 
1900 


16,501,268 
18,839,141 

19,626,654 
20,030,761 
19-223,155 
17,146,416 
24,316,873 
13,600,000 
12,661,044 
14,716,506 
13,588,614 
12,750,000 
11,212,913 

12,309,793 
12,728,869 
12,571,900 

12,422,811 
13,923,281 

15,334.317 
17,181,562 
15,871,401 

15,906,478 
15,336,031 
15.863,355 


Total 


■  $i,345i376,044 


INDEX. 


Numbers  Refer  to  Subheads. 


AX  LLYSES  - 

■  a  Cake    II 
Caliche,  198. 
Chili  niter.  lT'.t. 
Colemanite,  9  - 
Confidence  niter,  199. 
Danby  salt,  161. 
Death  Valley  nit.  i ,  198. 
Earth's  crust,  15. 

Hot  Borate  Springs,  Mono  Lake.  121. 

Hot  Borate  Springs,  IT. 

Lake  Hacliinhania.   16. 

Lower  Canon  niter.  199,  232 

Mono  Lake,  67,  68,  121. 

Niter,  i    - 

Ocean  water,  15,  131. 

•  twens  Lake,  1 19. 

i  >wl  niter    199,  234. 

Round  Mountain  niter.  199. 

Salton  salt,  155. 

Salt  Springs  int.  : 

Salt  Wells  Valley.  37. 

San  Francisco  Bay  salt,  63, 

■  les  Lake,  67. 

Soda  Lake,  164. 

Strata,  200. 

Upper  Canon  niter,  199,  281. 

r>  copafa  mi.  : 

Valley  niter,  199. 

Valley  Springs  salt.  170. 

AMI   LOP!     \  ALLi:\ 

MMi.xnix— 

California  State    Mining   Bureau,  p 
195-208. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY,  238. 

BORATES— 

Analyses  of,  H.  16,  IT.  67,  99,  104. 
Ammonia  process   - 

Alameda  process,  B4. 
Beds,  origin  of.  1 1 .  34. 
Borings.  Searles  Lake.  67. 
Borax,  from  boric  acid,  84. 
Bayonne.  X.  J.,  process,  79. 

14— Bui..  24 


B(  >i<  iTES    Com  untkd— 
Companies  fsee  Companies). 
Chili,  25. 

Chlorine  process,  mi. 

lii-tricts  (see  Districts). 

Discovery  of,  1 1,  16 

History,  20,  28. 

Hydrochloric  acid  pro.  ess,  81 

Imports,  27. 

Inyo,  29. 

India,  25. 

Italj 

Minerals  (see  Minerals),  85  116. 

Manufacture  of,  11   42,  7'.". 

Moore  process   80. 

origin  of,  15. 

Order  of  deposits,  10. 

Production,  24   •_'.">. 

Solubility  of,  10. 

Spring-.   17. 

Sulphuric  acid  process,  82. 

Turkey.  25. 

Tuscany,  2s. 

Values,  20,22,  21  26,  27. 

CARBONATES 
Analysis  ol   see  Analyses). 

Long  Valley.  122. 
Mineralogy  of,  123  to  130. 
Mi  >no  Lake,  120. 
Mono  Lake  Hot  Springs,  121. 
Natural  soda,  117. 
Origin  of,  lis. 
Owens  Lake,  119. 
Production.  119. 

CHLORIDES— 

Alameda  County.  136. 

Colusa  County    1  10. 

Exports,  Lis. 

Imports,  137. 

Inyo  County,  141. 

In  general,  175. 

Kern  County.  152. 

Los  Angeles  County.  153. 

Mineralogy.  132. 

Mono  County,  154. 


(209) 


210 


[NDEX. 


CHLORIDES  -Continued— 
I'i  i  iduction,  136. 
Riverside  Couuty    155. 
Salt.  181. 

Sau  Bernardino  County,  156. 

San  Diego  County,  1"'-. 

COMPANIES— 
Alvarado  Salt  Works,  139. 
American  Niter  Co.,  31,  38,  39,  188. 
American  Salt  Co.,  139. 
Antelope  Crystal  Co.,  1  10. 
Ainargosa  Borax  Co.,  35. 
Borax  Consolidated  Ltd.,  23,  26,  32,  84. 
Barton  Salt  Works,  139. 
Baumberger's  Salt  Works,  139. 
Blumenberg  M   Co  ,  51. 
California  Salt  Co.,  173. 
Carmen  Island  Salt  Co.,  139. 
Columbia  M.  Co  ,  5:;. 
Comet  Salt  Works,  139. 
Confidence  Mining  Co.  (goldj,  31. 
Conn  8t  Trudo  Co.  (borax),  36. 
Cox'S  Salt  Works,  139. 
Crystal  Salt  Co.,  139. 
Eagle  Borax  Co.,  30,  142. 
Greenland  Salt  >S:  Borax  Co..  32   144. 
Gutzkow  Salt  Works.  139. 
Inyo  Development  Co.  (salt),  65. 
Madsen  Salt  Works.  139. 
Mariscamb  Salt  Works>139. 
Mathewson  Salt  Works,  139. 
Michelson  Salt  Works.  139. 
Mount  Eden  Salt  Works,  139. 
New  Liverpool  Salt  Co.,  155. 
Oakland  Salt  Works,  139. 
Oasis  M.  Co.,  54. 
Occidental  Salt  Works   139. 
Oliver  Salt  Works,  139. 
Owens  M.  Co..  50. 
Pacific  Coast  Borax  Co.,  23,  26,  50 
Paradise  Salt  Works,  139. 
Pestdorf  Salt  Works   139. 
Pfizer,  Ctaas.  Kc  Co.  (borax),  21. 
Quigley  Salt  Works,  139. 
Reno  i (evelopment  Co.,  119. 
Rocky  Point  Salt  Works,  139. 
Salt  Wells  Borax  Co.,  ".7.  1  17. 
San  Bernardino  Borax  Co.,  67. 
Sinclair  Salt  Works,  139. 
Stauffer  Chemical  Co.  (borax),  21,  71. 
Stevens  8c  Green,  50. 
Xhorkildsen  Salt  Works.  71. 
Vnion  City  Salt  Works   139. 
Union  Pacific  Salt  Works,  139. 
Western  Mineral  Co   ( borax),  ,V2. 
Wisby  Salt  Works,  139. 

COUNTIES— 

Alameda.  72,  130,  131,  136,  I 

Butte,  72. 

Calaveras.  17"'. 
Colusa,  7(1.  72.  1 36,  140. 


C(  (UNTIES    Continued— 

Contra  Costa.  17'). 

El  Dorado,  7'-'. 
1  [umboldt,  72,  175. 

Inyo.,;,  21,28,  24,  26,  'J'.'.  >9,68,  99,  100.  101, 
106,  119,  123,  127.  128,  129,  111.  155;  177. 
189,  208,  214,  215,  216. 

Kern.  21,  23,  26,  I  '.  68,  100,  104,  106,  127, 

l.v.'. 
Lake.  20,  22,  23,  24,  26,  l>,  16,  72,  79,  175. 
i.o>  Angeles,  153,  175. 
Marin,  131. 
Mendocino,  72,  17.">. 
Mo,,,,,  23,  72,  120,  121,  122,  154. 
Monterey.  130. 
Napa,  72,  17."). 
Placer,  72,  130,  175. 
Riverside,  48,  6S,  10-4,  127,  136,  155. 
San   Bernardino,  21,  22,  'J::.  24,  29,  II,  -49, 

68,  100, 104. 106, 127.  136,  155,  156,  177.  L89 

191,  208,  2]  I,  215. 
Santa  Clara,  72,  130. 
San  Diego,  IN  68,  1:'.'''.  172. 
San  Luis  Obispo,  72,  175. 
Shasta,  70.  72.  7"). 
Siskiyou,  17"). 
Solano.  70,  72.  17">. 
Sonoma.  72,  175. 
Tehama,  68,  7'-'.  175. 
Tulare.  130. 
Ventura   21,23,  24,  71.99. 

DEATH  VAI.I.W.  1.  1,6,7,30,31,82,  124, 
155,  180, 181,  189. 

DESERTS— 

Arabia,  1. 
Africa,  1. 
Chili.  177 
Mojave,  »''. 
Sahara,  1. 
Tarapaca,  1. 
Tamarugal,  177. 

DISTRICTS 
Alkali  Lake  (see  Borax  LAKE), 
Amargosa  River,  10,  123,  no,  150  157,  179, 
AvawatZ  Lake,  37.  [188. 

Bennett's  Wells.  30,   19,  112. 
Black's  Ranch.  :',7. 
Bitter  Springs.  1"'.'. 
Borax  Lake,  45. 
Borax   Lake,   San    Bernardino   Co.   (see 

Skarl.es  I.AKi    . 
Borax  Marsh  (see  s-i.vri.es  Lark). 
Borax  Springs    17. 
Buckhorn  Springs.  I  i. 
Carlsbad 
Casteca  Lake.  66. 

Calico.  12,  21,23,  24,  26,  50,  79,  99,  106,  208, 
Cave  Springs  [--"• 

Cane  Springs  see  Rank  Strings). 
China  Lake.  II 
Circle  Lake,  37. 


INDEX. 


211 


DIS  rRICTS    Continued 
Clear  Lake,  14,  16  20  21  W. 

Confidence,  81,   19,  9  I    201, 

Coronado,  I  [208 

l  ..\  -t.   Holes,  67, 
Cronese  Laki 
I'.ml.v    161,201    ■    - 
■  t  Sj .i  Ings,  16   161. 

I  •:  \    !.  iki 

ElPaa    Wells    n. 

Purnace  Creek,  11,  82  99,  106,  144. 

Grapevine  River(see  Amargosa  . 

Indian  Spi  ings,  12, 

k.  Hi  \  -  Slough,  17.:. 

Kanr  Spi  ingS     18. 

I. a  Costa,  178. 

Lake  i  [achinhama  21    1 1    16. 

Laki   Kaysa 

Lower  Cafion,  18,  19  60  99    162    199,  201 

LoneStai      E 

Loni   Will 

Long  Valley,  122. 

Mi  squitc  Spi  ings,  16,  28,  L06. 

Mojave  sink.  5,  7,  61,  72,  163,  164, 

Mono  i  ■:.  72,  120,  121,  m.  154. 

Monte  Blanco,  83,  19,  99,  106. 

\.  edles,  201,  229. 

Oceanside   it::. 

Owens  Lake,  1,  6,  16,  84,  119   128,  ill    145 

Owl  Springs,  11.   19,  62   99,  106,  126,  165, 

190  -    224,284. 

( >\vi  Holes      ■  ■  ■  \  i.  Springs). 
i  >w  l  Mountain  (see  <  Iwl  Springs). 
Palms  Laki 
Pilot,  22,  61,64,  J01. 
Pitt  Rivei    16,  K). 
1'iru.    9. 

Plaj  .i  Laki  s,  68. 
Resting  Springs,  35,  19,  L06. 
Round  Mountain,  19    L9  I  201,  208, 
Salinas  Valley,  23. 
Saline  Valley,   !6,  19,  1 11    1 16. 
Salt  Springs,  19,65,  106,  166,  199,201,208, 
Sail  Wells  28.  [221. 

salt  Wells  Valley,  37,  42,  141, 1 17,  152. 
Sal  ton,  1,  7, 11,48,  15  i, 
Saratog  158,  167,  190   199 

'201   208,  222,  288. 

11,67    104, 
Soda  Laki  .  5,  72.  [106    127   168 

•     MOJAVl     MNK). 
Si  "la  Spi  1 1) u     U  '■'■ 

Sweetwater,  17). 

Stony  Cixck.  40. 

Tecopah  S,  I  IS    1 19,  199,  201 

Tehachapi,  67.  [217. 

Upper  Canon,  L8,  39    19   99    106    1 19,  190, 

199,  201,  208,  216,  219,  231. 
Valley,  19,  99,  170,  199,  201, 
Volcano,  201,  230. 
Willard  Springs,  171. 
Willow  Springs  Lake,  57. 


KI.KY  \  n.  INS, 

•  .!<  >l.l  h.v— 

Champlain,  I,  \'-*i. 

190   192,  198,  196. 
Glacial,  1. 

Jura  Trias,  I,  12,  r.»j. 
Palaeozoic,  1,  12. 
Quaternary,  12. 
i  •  1 1  i.ii  \    I    12, 
GR]    \  I     B  \-INT— 
i  olian  sands,  i'1  i 

Uk.ili  nun  •-)] 

B  isin  i  ange  structure  2, 
Beli '-.*  sea-level    i 
Chemistry  of,  15, 
Climate,  5,  194. 
Cloudbursts,  1 1. 

ilorado  Desert,  2,  I,  31,  69. 
Di  5  laki 

I  >USt  -t<  .mis,  10. 

Evapoi  ation,  34, 

siou,  1 1. 
Fissun   -]iriiigs,  8.  9. 
l  ossils   19. 
Geology,  1,  12. 
11'  a  ^]>i  ings,  8. 
Jointings  of  beds,  18. 
Mirage,  5,  7. 
Mojave  i  lesert,  2. 
Mountain  structui 
<  nil.r  of  deposits,  li''. 
Playa  lakes,  6,  7,  08. 
River  sinks,  5. 

Sand  dunes,  1U. 

<  mdai  y  !.ik.  - 

Hi  ry,  2,  :: 
Shore  inns,  n. 
—  "l.i  lakes,  7. 
r,  1 1  ai  ■  '!•  i" 'sit--,  li. 
Tufa,  17. 

Volcanic  action,  13. 
Warm  springs,  8. 

I.  \K1  JS 

Alkali  (see  Borax). 

Aubury,  I,  3,  6,  7.  9,  11.  U.  16,  18,  19,  118, 

Black,  [189. 

Bonneville,  1. 

Borax,  2,  :'•  24,  II  79,  104. 

Butti    ' 

Carson,  1. 

Casteca,  152. 

Clear,  II,  16  20,21,23,29,  30,  II. 

Circle,  37. 

Cronese,  ::7. 

I>ry.  2,  37, 

Humboldt,  l. 
Hachinhama,  21 .  1 1. 

Kaysa.    1  I. 

Lahontan,  1. 

Le  Conte,  1,7,9,11,  IB,  18, 

Michigan,  I. 


212 


[NDEX. 


LAKES-  -Continued— 

Mono,  28,  72,  154. 

Owens,  1,  6,  16,  34,  119,  Ml. 

Playa,  37,  38. 

Saline,  6. 

Salt  Lake,  Utah,  1,  16. 

Salton  Sea,  1,  7.  155. 

Searles,  6,  10,  23,  30,  37,  41,  226. 

Soda,  5,  72. 

Superior,  1 

Tccopah,  6. 

Walker,  1. 

Winnemuca,  1. 

MINKKAI.S.So.     (See,  also,  Analyses.) 
Anhydrite,  t',7. 
Axinite,  15,  116. 
Bechilite,  110. 
Bismutite,  129. 
Boracite,  9,  27.  .'.:. 
Borate  of  lime  (see  Colkmanitk). 
Borate  of  magnesia.  15,  116. 
Borate  of  soda  (see  Borax). 
Borax,  9.  27.  32  to 92.  104,  ITT.  181. 
Boric  acid  (see  Sassolite). 
Bromine.  47. 
Calcite,  67. 

Calcium  borate  (see  Colemanite). 
Calcium  carbonate,  15,  16,  17. 
Calcium  nitrate, 
Calcium  phosphate,  179   180. 
Calcium  sulphate.  15,  10.  18,  179,  180  19S, 
Caliche,  177,  179,  181,  182.  [216. 

Carnalite,  16. 
Celectite,  67. 
Cerargyrite,  67. 

Chili  saltpeter  (see  Sodium  Nitrate). 
Chlormagnesite.  135. 
Colemanite,  9,  23.  27.  80,  32.  50,  59.  60,  79. 
Cotton  ball  (see  UtEXlTB).  [99.  181. 

Cryptomorphite,  109. 
Cubic  saltpeter  (see  Sodium  Nitrate). 
Datolite,  15,  114. 
Danburite,  15.  113.  116. 
Darapskite.  21  I. 
Dawsonite.  123. 
Docmcniti'.  67. 
gmbolite,  67. 

Frauklandite  (see  ULEXITE). 
Gay-lussite.  67,  126. 
Gerhardtite,  213. 
Glauberite,  35. 
Gold.  67. 

Gypsum  [see  Calcium  Sulphate). 
Halite,  67,  132. 
Hambergite,  91. 
Hanksitc.  67. 
Hayesene  ;see  ULEXITE). 
Heintzite,  103. 
Howlite,  96. 
Hydroboracite.  111. 
Hydromagnesite.  128. 


M  I  X  !•'.  K  A  I.S  -  Com  I  NUBD— 
Iodine,  47,  66. 
Jeremjevite,  s7. 
I.agonite.  97. 
Lardellite,  98. 
Lithium,  11. 
I.udwigite,  89. 
Magncsite,  130. 

Magnesium  sulphate.  11,  10,  179,  180.  181, 
Magnesium  chloride.  10,  06.  [198. 

Natron,  67.  125. 
Niter      (see      SODIUM       NITRATE,      also 

Niter). 
Nitrobarite,  212. 
Nitrocalcite,  210. 
Nitroglauberite,  215. 
Nitromagnesite,  211. 
Nordenskioldine,  66 
Pandermite,  27.  30,  32,  7'.'.  101. 
Pinakiolite,  90. 
Pinnoite,  102, 
Potassium  iodate.  179.  180. 
Potassium  nitrate,  176.  209. 
Potassium  perchlorate.  178. 
Priceite.  23,  100. 
Rhodizite,  94. 
Salt.  15.  30,  32,  47,  131. 
Saltpeter  (see  Potassium  Nitrate). 
Sal  ammoniac.  134. 
Sassolite.  9.  11,27.  28,  30,  112. 
Soda,  15.  42.63,  67,  177.  180. 
Sodium  biborate  (see  Borax). 
Sodium  carbonate,  31,  47,  117  to  130.  179, 

225. 
Sodium  chloride,  15,  16,  26,  28,  30, 131. 179. 

198,  225. 
Sodium  nitrate,  15. 31,  39,  67.  179,  180.  198, 

208. 
Sodium  sulphate.  31.  37.-  47.  179.  180,  198. 
Sheet  cotton  (see  Ulexite). 
Sulphate    of   lime   (see    Calcium    Sul- 

l'HATE). 

Sulphur.  35. 

Sussexite.  88. 

Sylvite.  133. 

Szaibelyte,  15.92.  110. 

Thenardite,  30,  32.  67. 

Tincal  (see  Borax). 

Tincalconite,  105. 

Tiza  (see  Ulexite). 

Tourmaline,  15,  115. 

Trona,  30.  32,  07.  127. 

Thermouatrite,  124. 

Ulexite,  9,  30,  32.  43,  59.  106,  107,  108. 

Warwickite,  15,  95.  111. 

MOUNTAINS— 

Argus.  35. 
Avawatz.  6,  60,  191. 
Brown's,  59. 
Cerro  Gordo.  6. 
Coos,  6. 


INDEX. 


213 


MOUNTAINS    Cos  nmn  D 
I  ).i!  win.  6. 
Eden,  6  '■. 
Funeral,  6,  16,    -' 
Grapevin 
Ida.  1U. 
Inyo,  119. 
Kingston,  6,  191. 
Monte  Blanco,  88. 
( iKl  Woman,  161. 

Panamint,  6. 
Resting  Springs,  6. 
-    i  Bernardino,  8L 
San  Jose,  76. 
Shadow,  6. 

ra  Nevada,  l.  6,  12,  119,  191. 
Soda  Lake,  159. 
Telescope,  I. 6. 
Whitney,  I. 

NITER,  176. 
and  oranges,  286. 
Autofagaata,  Chili,  1 77. 
AgimB  Blancos,  Chili,  177. 

Caliche.  177.  179,  180,  191,199. 
Caucasus,  176. 
Chemistry  of,  180. 
Chemical  analyses,  198. 
Chili.  177  to  186,203. 

Aguas  Blancos,  177. 

Appearance,  190. 

Autofagasta,  177. 

Caliche,  177, 179, 180. 

Chemical.  17'.'. 

Cost  of  manufacturing  niter,  181. 

Costra.  177,  181. 

Duties.  184. 

Exports,  178,  L85. 
Leal,  180. 

Historical.  178. 

Jazpampa,  177. 

Junin,  177. 

I.agunas,  177. 
"        Location.  177. 

Mining  niter,  182. 

Process  of  manufacturing.  178,  183. 

Similarity  to  California  beds,  181. 
Clay  hills,  198. 
Climate.  205. 
Contraband  of  war.  17- 
Daghestan.  niter  in,  176. 
Death  Valley.  191. 
Difficulties  of  sampling.  197 
Fertilizer.  285. 

General,  176. 

Germany,  235. 
Geology,  1H0.  192. 
History,  188. 
Imports.  186. 
Iquique.  177,  183. 
Jazpampa,  Chili.  177. 


Mil    K      CON  1  IMUBD— 

Junin,  chili,  177. 

I.agunas.  Chili,  177. 

Location 

Manufacture  of,  184,  203. 

Mineralogy  of,  208  joMikbrals.) 

Officinas,  17-.  182. 

i  nil.  ina  Autofagasta,  i-::. 

Officina  Ramirez,  179,  188, 

i  Tigin  of,  17'.>.  L96, 

Pi  mi.  178 

Potash,  niter,  176,  17'.'.  180, 

Production  in  Chili,  17*.  188,  18 
Quantity,  201. 

Ramirez,  Chili.  17'.i.  183. 
Ranches,  2n7. 
Russia,  niter  in.  176. 

Salt,  180. 

Similarity  of  Chill  and  California  beds, 

1-1. 
South  Africa,  niter  in.  176. 
Statistics,  nitei .  185,  186,  187. 
Statistics,  United  states  inter.  186,  1-7. 

Strata,  195. 
Strata  analyses,  200. 
Taltal,  cinli.  177. 
Tamarugal,  Chili,  177.  17'.>. 
Tarapaca,  Chili.  177.  17'.'. 
Tocopilla,  Chili,  177. 
Transportation.  206. 
Valparaiso,  Chili,  177. 
Values.  202. 
Water  supply,  201. 

1'HKSONS- 
Aubury.  Hon    I.,  wis  1 
Ayers,  W.  c  .  11.  46. 
Babcock,  K.  S  .  172. 
Bailey,  G.  E.281. 
Bailey,  Prof,  will  C.,231. 
liartlett,  W.  T, 
Biddel,  H.  I  ,238. 
Campana,  J.  P.,  188. 
Chase.  Lieut.  A.  W.,23,  100. 
Chatard,T.  M  .  l it.  121.  J 
Coleman.  W.  T.,  28,  82,  50,99. 
Colville.  F.  V..  238. 
Cook.  J.  B  ,  161. 
Cope.  E.  D.,2 
Creigh.  J.  D.,  23. 
Darwin,  177. 
Din.  K    S,  288. 

Earle,  J.  J..  2 

Pales,  W.  k..  64,226,228,230. 

Flint,  H   T.,229 

Forney,  J.  M.,  188. 

Gooch.  F.  A  .  288. 

Hake.  C.  X.,  67. 

Hanks.  H.,288. 

Harrington.  M.  W..:;2.  238. 

Harvey.  B  .  179. 

Humphries,  Dr.  F.  H.,  63. 


214 


INDEX. 


l'l    RSONS— CONTINUED— 

Johnson  &  Williams,  63. 
King,  C,  238. 
Lee,  Philander,  :;.">. 
Loew,  o.,  119. 
I. cut.  H.  J.,  43. 
Lunge,  Dr.  G..  117.  238. 
Maercker,  Dr.,  235. 

Manly,  \V.  L.,238. 

Moore,  47. 

Morph,  T.  R  ,  121. 

Newton.  Dr.  William,  179,  183,238. 

Price.  Thomas.  28,  99,  100,  170.  231. 

Peterson.  64. 

Phillips.  Prot 

Plagemann,  A.,  179,  1-1 

Quigley,J.,139. 

Searles.  D  .  17,  23,  35. 

Searles.  J.  W..  23,  67 

Shillings,  E.  M .,23,  67. 

Smith.  K.  M..  23,  32,  59. 

Spear,  John  k.,  86,  288. 

Whitfield.  J.  E.,  116,  238. 

Veatch,  Dr.  J.  A.,  23,  15,  18.  70. 

Wickizer,  H.,  231. 

PREHISTORIC  MAN,  1. 

PRODUCTION,  TABLES  OF. 
(See  Tables.) 

PROCESS  OF  MANUFACTURE— 

Alameda,  borax,  84. 
Ammonia,  83. 
Bayonne,  79. 
Calico.  79. 
Chili,  17,s,  183. 
Chlorine.  80. 
Hydrochloric  acid,  81. 
Moore,  80. 
Owens  Lake,  119. 
Searles  Lake.  68. 
Sulphuric  acid.  82. 

RIVERS  AND  CRFEKS— 
Amargosa,  12.  18,  ::•".,  39,  116,  191. 
Amargosa,  South  Fork,  72. 191. 
Cauda  de  Luc  Voco.  67. 
Carizzo,  Is 
Furnace,  7.  23,  32,  83,  112. 

Ivanpah.  6. 

Kern.  1")J. 

Los  Vuas,  152. 

Mojave,  71,  72,  191. 

Mojave  Sink,  21. 

Owens,  110. 

Pitt,  2;;. 

San  Felipe.  |s. 

Stinking,  7(1. 

•stony,  30. 

Willow.  :n. 

Willow  Creek.  U.S.  216. 

PERU,  17- 


SPRINGS    \XD  WELLS 

.Etna.  17.") 

Agua  Caliente,  3L 

Agua  Rica.  72 

Alhambra,  175. 

Allen.  17.".. 

Alum.  175. 

Anderson.  72. 

Aral).  71. 

Azule,  17.".. 

Bartlett.  72. 

Barrel.  61,  77. 

Beachwater.  77. 

Bedrock.  79. 

Bennett's  Wells,  8,  30.  71. 

Birel.74. 

Hitter.  77. 

Black.  77. 

Blodgett,  175. 

Boiling.  77. 

Bonanza,  77. 

Borax.  61,  72,  77. 

Borego,  78. 

Boulder.  76. 

Bowers,  78. 

Browns.  76. 

Buckhorn,  75,  152. 

Burt's  Well.  77. 

Calistoga,  175. 

Cane  (see  Kane). 

Canon,  76. 

Carbonated  Soda.  17. 

Castalian,  151. 

Cave.  77. 

China  Ranch,  71. 

Chuckawalla.  76 

City.  77. 

Clipper  Gap.  175. 

Cold,  71. 

Cooley,  77. 

Copper,  77. 

Cottonwood,  76,  77. 

Cove.  77. 

Cow  Wells,  75. 

Coyote.  77. 

Cronese.  77. 

Crystal,  71. 

Desert.  23,  75. 

Desert  springs,  list  of.  7;'.. 

Desert  (see  Kane). 

Diana.  72. 

El  Paso,  75. 

El  Paso  de  Rob'.es.  72.  75. 

]•: migrant.  71 

Eureka,  72,  17".. 

l'rnuer,  77. 

Fish,  78. 

Flowing  Wells,  75. 

Fountain.  71 

Fourth  of  July.  77. 

Francis,  77. 

Franklin  Wells.  71. 


INDEX. 


•J  1  r> 


SPRINGS    VND  WELLS    Continued— 

-h.  7  I.  77. 
l-i-ink-.  78. 

Purnace,  7 1. 
Garlic,  77. 
i  iarden,  175. 

n  Alpine,  '-. 
Government,  77. 
Granite  Tanks. _ 
Granite  Wells,  24,  26,  77.  171. 
Grant,  77. 
Grapevine, 

■  enland,  71. 
i  [aderan,  77. 
Harbin,  72. 
Bidden,  17. 
Horse,  71.  77. 
Hot,  74,  121. 
Hot  Borate,  17. 
Hough,  17. 
How  ai  d,  17. 

Indian,  71.  75,  T7.  7-.  152. 
Iodine,  IT. 
Iron.  175. 

Kane,  '.'::.  IS,  75,  77. 
Cessler,  77. 
Kingston,  >'•. 
Lagunita,  7 1. 
Lander,  75. 
Langford,  TT. 

I.'  a;  h.  8,  77 
i.  77. 

Lick  (s«.c  Tuscan). 
Lone  Star,  77. 

I, one  Willow.  77. 
I.\  oil'..  77. 

Lytton,  7.'. 

Marl.  77. 

Means,  "7. 

McCain.  78, 

McCoy-.  76 

Mesquite,  -':.  71.  7"..  77,  7-.  152. 

Ml  mill  Ida.  72. 
Mount  Palm, 
Mini.  175. 
Muli 
Neptune,  7J. 

New    Almailcii.  175. 

Nile.  71 

i  lid  Woman.  77. 

Owl,  n.  'I-',  77. 

Owl   Hol  IWL), 

i ■     i tic-  Congress,  17"'. 
Palm,  78. 
Palcn.  76. 

adise,  s.  77. 

-.77. 
Piedmont,  7J. 
Pilot,  77. 
Piute,  71. 
Providence.  77. 
Quail.  77. 


SPRINGS  AND  WELLS    Contini  i  D 

Rabbit,  77. 

Resting 

Rock,  77. 

Rock  Corral,  77. 

Rose 

Sackett's  Wells,  7-. 

Salt.  71.  77.  175. 

rid,  175 
Samuels.  72, 
Santa  Rosa,  72. 
s.mta  Ysabel,  7-'. 
San  Leandro,  63. 
San  Ral 

S   ■  itoga,  -.  IT.  19  TT 
gler,  IT. 

enteen  Palms,  78. 

Smith,  76. 

da,  72  Ti   78,  IT.".. 
Squaw,  TT. 
Star   T7. 

Stoddard's  Wells,  77. 
Summit  Soda.  72. 
Summit.  7  I. 
Sulphur,  71.  76. 
Stubbs,  76. 
Surprise.  77,  161. 
Surveyor's.  74. 
Sycamore.  11".. 

Tecopah,  71. 

Three  Springs  71. 
Tolenas,  175. 
Tule,  38,  Ti.  78 
Turm 

Tuscan.  'J::.  70,  72. 
Union   T  I. 

Valley.  TT. 

Warren's,  77. 

Water  Station.  TI    75,  T7. 

Wilbur's,  TT. 

Wild  Rose.  TI. 

Willow.  TT. 

Wilson's  Well. 

Willard's  Wells.  T7. 

Witter.  17.  72. 

Warm,  77. 

White  Sulphur,  7-'. 

Yreka,  76. 

Yucca.  7-. 

Zacatan,    - 

TABL1  - 
Borax,  l'roduction.  24. 

Imports,  27. 

Values,  26. 
Niter    Imports.  186. 

Exports,  185, 187. 

Value- 
Salt,  l'roduction,  136. 
"     Imports,  137. 
••    Kxports,  138. 


•_'16 


TOWNS— 
Alameda.  21,84. 
Alvarado,  136. 
Alviso,  136. 
Bakersfield,  71. 
Ballarat.  6. 
Barstow,  5,  54. 

Bayonne,  X.  J.,  21,  28,  50,  79,  84. 
Bodie,  120. 
Calico,  50. 
Centerville,  136. 
Daggett,  21,  2::.  50,  53,  160,  203. 
Danby,  161. 
Kl  Paso  de  Robles,  71. 
Eureka,  10. 
Harper.  ::7. 
Healdsburg,  72. 
Hopeland.  72. 
Independence,  2'.',  119. 
Johannesburg,  121. 
Keeler,  36,  119. 
Los  Angeles,  153. 
Madrone,  72. 


INDEX. 


TOWNS    Continued— 

Marion.  21,  50,  52,  7'.». 

Mount  Kden,  186. 

Mojave,  5,  26. 

National  City,  171. 

Needles  5,  205. 

Newark,  186. 

Oroville,  40. 

Red  Bluff,  70. 

Redding,  76. 

Redondo,  153. 

Russel  Station,  136. 

Salton.  I.J.  69,  155. 

San  Rafael,  131. 

Sites,  1-40. 

Tarapaca,  Chili,  1,  177.  179. 

Union  City.  136. 

Yuma,  Ariz.,  32,  203. 

VALI.KYS— 
Saline,  28 
Visalia,  130. 


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MAP    OK    THE^ 


3- 


Legend 

O  Borax 
•  Salt 
®5oda 
Nitre 

•  Saune^playa  lakes 


Saline  Deposits  of  the^^ 

Southern  Portion  of  California 


To  accompany  Bulletin  No.  24, 


ISSUED    BY   THE 


California  State  Mining  Bureau, 

FERRY    BUILDING,   SAN    FRANCISCO. 


By    Q.    E.    BAILEY,    E.M.,    Ph.D. 

LEWIS  E.  AUBURY,      -      - 


State  Mineralogist. 


BY    AUTHORITY    OF 

HENRY  T.  GAGE,  Governor  of  California. 


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